^KVOFPRI^ 


> 


THE  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


*•   . 


THE  QUOTATIONS  of  the 
NEW  TESTAMENT  FROM  THE 

OLD       CONSIDERED  IN  THE  LIGHT 
OF  GENERAL  LITERATURE     <s*Sxs> 


FRANKLIN  "JOHNSON,  D.  D. 

Professor  in  the  University  of  Chicago 


PHILADELPHIA 

AMERICAN  BAPTIST  PUBLICATION  SOCIETY 

MDCCCXCVI 


Copyright  1895  by  the 
Ameuican  Baptist  Publication  Society 


®tf 

THE    MEMORY   OF   MY 

FATHER 
Rev.  HEZEKIAH  JOHNSON 


CONTENTS 


Introductory, ix 

I.  The  Septuagint  Version, i 

II.  Quotations  from  Memory, 29 

III.  Fragmentary  Quotations, 62 

IV.  Exegetical  Paraphrase, 74 

V.  Composite  Quotations, 92 

VI.  Quotations  of  Substance, 103 

VII.  Allegory, 116 

VIII.   Quotations  by  Sound, 139 

I.  Change  of  Reference  not  involving  any  material 
change  of  the  words  quoted,  or  of  their 
meaning, 140 

II.   Change  of  Reference  effected  by  an  intentional 

change  of  the  language  quoted 154 

III.  Change  of  Reference  produced  without  altera- 
tion of  the  language,  but  by  the  use  of  it  in  a 
new  sense, 167 


Vlll  CONTENTS 

IX.   Double  Reference, 186 

I.  The  Case  Stated, 186 

II.  The  Debate, 1S6 

III.  The  Usage  of  Literatures 198 

IV.  How  Double  Reference  is  Indicated,     .     .     .  222 

I.  By  Means  of  Overflow  of  Language,  .     .     .  222 
II.  By  Means  of  Types, 224 

V.   Double  Reference  in  Scripture,    .     .     .     4     .231 
VI.   Final  Propositions 331 

X.  Illogical  Reasoning, 336 

XI.  Rabbinic  Interpretation, 372 


INTRODUCTORY 


The  principal  difficulties  which  have  been  found 
with  the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Old  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

i.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  instead  of 
translating  their  quotations  directly  from  the  Hebrew, 
and  thus  presenting  us  with  exact  transcriptions  of  the 
original  text,  have  taken  them  generally  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version,  which  is  not  free  from  faults. 

2.  Their  quotations  from,  the  Septuagint  are  often 
verbally  inexact,  and  their  variations  from  this  version 
are  seldom  of  the  nature  of  corrections,  since  they 
seem  usually  to  have  quoted  from  memory. 

3.  They  sometimes  employ  quotations  so  brief  and 
fragmentary  that  the  reader  cannot  readily  determine 
the  degree  of  support,  if  any,  which  the  quotation 
gives  to  the  argument. 

4.  They  sometimes  alter  the  language  of  the  Old  1s 
Testament   with   the   obvious   design   of    aiding  their 
argument. 

5.  They  sometimes  present  in  the  form  of  a  single 
quotation  an  assemblage  of  phrases  or  sentences  drawn 
from  different  sources. 

6.  In  a  few  instances  they  give  us,  apparently  as 
quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  sentences  which 
it  does  not  contain. 


X  INTRODUCTORY 

7.  They  regard  some  historical  passages  of  the  Old 
Testament  as  allegories,  and  thus  draw  from  them  in- 
ferences of  which  the  original  writers  knew  nothing. 

8.  They  often  "  quote  by  sound,  without  regard  to 
the  sense." 

9.  They  habitually  treat  as  relating  to  the  Messiah 
and  his  kingdom  passages  written  with  reference  to 
persons  who  lived  and  events  which  happened  centu- 
ries before  the  Christian  era. 

10.  When  they  understand  the  passage  which  they 
quote,  they  often  argue  from  it  in  an  inconclusive  and 
illogical  manner,  so  that  the  evidence  which  they  ad- 
duce does  not  prove  the  statement  which  they  seek  to 
support  by  means  of  it. 

11.  They  deal  with  the  Old  Testament  after  the 
manner  of  the  rabbis  of  their  time,  which  was  uncriti- 
cal and  erroneous,  rather  than  as  men  inspired  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  to  perceive  and  express  the  exact  truth. 

I  present  the  difficulties  thus  broadly  in  the  begin- 
ning, that  they  may  be  in  the  mind  of  every  reader  as 
he  pursues  the  discussions  which  follow.  I  shall  ex- 
amine them  in  the  light  of  general  literature.  I  am 
far  from  consenting  to  all  the  conclusions  reached  by 
Matthew  Arnold  in  his  "  Literature  and  Dogma  "  ;  yet, 
with  him,  I  think  it  just  to  regard  the  writers  of  the 
Bible  as  the  creators  of  a  great  literature,  and  to  judge 
and  interpret  them  by  the  laws  of  literature.  They 
have  produced  all  the  chief  forms  of  literature,  as  his- 
tory, biography,  anecdote,  proverb,  oratory,  allegory, 
poetry,  and  fiction.  They  have  needed,  therefore,  all 
the  resources  of  human  speech,  its  sobriety  and  stien- 
tific  precision  on  one  page,  its  rainbow  hues  of  fancy 


INTRODUCTORY  XI 

and  imagination  on  another,  its  fires  of  passion  on  yet 
another.  They  could  not  have  moved  and  guided  men 
in  the  best  manner  had  they  denied  themselves  the 
utmost  force  and  freedom  of  language ;  had  they  refused 
to  employ  its  wide  range  of  expressions,  whether  exact 
or  poetic ;  had  they  not  borrowed  without  stint  its 
many  forms  of  reason,  of  terror,  of  rapture,  of  hope, 
of  joy,  of  peace.  So  also,  they  have  needed  the  usual 
freedom  of  literary  allusion  and  citation,  in  order  to 
commend  the  gospel  to  the  judgment,  the  tastes,  and 
the  feelings  of  their  readers.  Bearing  all  this  in 
memory,  I  shall  inquire  whether  in  their  quotations 
from  the  Old  Testament  the  writers  of  the  New  have 
disregarded  the  laws  of  literature. 

These  laws  are  of  two  kinds  :  first,  those  which  be- 
long to  all  literatures  of  all  ages  and  nations,  like  that 
of  truth,  or  that  of  beauty  ;  and  secondly,  those  which 
change  with  season  and  clime,  the  dictates  of  eva- 
nescent or  local  taste  and  custom,  like  the  absence  of 
rhyme  from  ancient  poetry,  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew 
poetry,  or  the  alliteration  of  English  poetry.  In  quot- 
ing from  the  Old  Testament,  do  the  writers  of  the  New 
violate  the  fundamental  law  of  all  literature,  which  is 
that  of  truth  ?  Or  do  they  observe  this,  and  do  the 
accusations  made  against  them  proceed  from  forgetful- 
ness,  either  of  the  laws  of  literature  in  general,  or  of 
temporary  laws,  the  literary  custom,  prevalent  in  their 
age  ?  The  answer  will  be  found  in  the  following  pages, 
where  I  have  sought  to  secure  for  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  a  candid  hearing  in  the  court  of  the 
republic  of  letters,  a  commonwealth  of  which,  to  say 
the  least,  they  are  illustrious  citizens. 


Xll  INTRODUCTORY 

My  argument  turns  partly  upon  the  modes  of  ex- 
pression which  all  great  writers  of  all  languages  and 
all  ages  adopt  by  instinct  as  the  most  convenient  means 
of  transferring  their  thoughts  to  others.  It  also  turns 
often  upon  the  special  modes  of  expression  employed 
in  Greek  literature,  since  the  New  Testament  was 
written  in  Greek ;  and  hence  something  must  be  said 
here  concerning  the  acquaintance  of  the  authors  of 
the  New  Testament  with  Greek  literature.  I  shall 
limit  the  inquiry  to  the  Apostle  Paul  and  the  writer 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for  it  is  with  their  quo- 
tations that  the  chief  difficulties  are  found. 

Little,  however,  need  be  said  about  the  unknown 
writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for,  though  his 
style  is  far  from  that  of  Plato  or  Demosthenes,  his 
work  shows  him  to  have  been  a  master  of  the  Greek 
tongue  in  its  literary  forms.  He  uses  it  not  lamely, 
partially,  stammeringly,  but  with  such  ease  and  power 
as  few  of  the  Greeks  themselves  attained.  It  has 
been  well  said1  that  his  words  are  "martialed  grandly," 
and  "  move  with  the  tread  of  an  army,  or  with  the 
swell  of  a  tidal  wave."  If,  as  is  now  generally  con- 
jectured, he  was  Apollos,  his  skill  in  the  use  of  Greek 
is  explained  by  the  notice  of  him  in  the  Acts  :'-  Apol- 
los was  "born  at  Alexandria,  an  eloquent  man,  and 
mighty  in  the  Scriptures."  "Born  at  Alexandria,"  he 
would  use  Greek  as  his  native  tongue.  It  was  pre- 
cisely at  Alexandria  that  Greek  literature  was  most 
sedulously  studied  in  the  apostolic  age,  and  learned 
Jews  were  not  behind  others  in  their  admiration  of   it, 

i  By  the  Rev.  William  T.  C.  Hanna.  ■  iS  :  24. 


INTRODUCTORY  Xlll 

as  is  proved  by  the  writings  of  Philo,  every  page  of 
which  is  saturated  with  it.  Moreover,  the  "eloquence  " 
of  this  man  was  exhibited  in  Greek,  the  language  of 
Ephesus  and  Corinth,  where  we  find  him  preaching. 
The  Greek  of  the  epistle  is  of  an  Alexandrian  cast ; 
and  its  eloquence,  which  is  very  great,  is  that  of  an 
orator,  rather  than  an  essayist,  for  the  words  are  often 
chosen  for  their  sonorous  quality,  and  the  whole  work 
is  marked  by  a  solemn  pomp  of  sound,  by  resonant 
and  harmonious  sentences,  so  that  the  reader  is  often 
tempted  to  think  of  it  as  music  rather  than  as  lan- 
guage. It  would  be  as  absurd  to  suppose  that  one 
unacquainted  with  the  best  Greek  literature  wrote  this 
epistle,  equally  wonderful  for  its  language  and  its 
thought,  as  to  suppose  that  one  unacquainted  with  the 
best  English  literature  wrote  Burke's  orations  or 
Coleridge's  "Aids  to  Reflection." 

The  Greek  of  the  Apostle  Paul  is  not  the  same  in 
kind  with  that  of  this  writer.  It  is  ordinarily  less 
even  and  sustained,  and  more  broken,  tumultuous,  and 
eager  ;  yet  at  times  it  rises  higher,  and  attains  unex- 
ampled tenderness  and  beauty,  as  in  I  Cor.  13,  which 
is  an  exquisite  poem,  a  lyric  of  love  to  God  and  man. 
It  has  been  said  that  the  Greek  of  the  apostle  is  not 
his  own,  but  that  of  an  amanuensis,  who  translated  his 
thought  into  Greek ;  but  a  little  consideration  will 
show  that  this  supposition  is  erroneous.  He  must  have 
employed  various  amanuenses,  as  his  epistles  were  writ- 
ten at  intervals  through  many  years  and  at  many  dif- 
ferent places.  But  his  style,  though  bearing  marks  here 
of  haste  and  there  of  leisure,  or  here  of  mid-life  and 
there  of  advancing  years,  is  always  that  of  the  Apostle 


XIV  INTRODUCTORY 

Paul.  This  could  not  have  been  the  case  had  his 
many  different  amanuenses  been  also  his  translators  ; 
each  one  would  have  given  us  his  own  peculiar  style. 

Furthermore,  this  apostle  on  several  occasions  quotes 
from  minor  Greek  poets  (Acts  ly  :  28  ;  Titus  1:12).  A 
writer  familiar  with  the  minor  poets  of  a  people  is  not 
ignorant  of  the  major ;  if  he  has  mastered  his  Cowper 
and  his  Burns,  so  as  to  have  them  at  hand  for  ready 
use  in  extemporaneous  speech,  he  has  not  neglected  his 
Milton  and  his  Shakespeare. 

The  words  which  Paul  quotes  in  his  address  at  Athens 
he  attributes  to  "  certain  of  the  Greek  poets  "  ;  he  uses 
the  plural,  and  thus  shows  that  he  has  read  them  in  two 
authors,  Aratus  and  Cleanthes. 

Yet  again  ;  in  this  addresss  he  follows  in  a  striking 
manner  the  order  of  thought  which  he  found  in  Aratus  ; 
the  poet  says  : 

Zeus  fills  the  haunts  of  men, 
The  streets,  the  marts  ;  Zeus  fills  the  seas,  the  shores, 
The  harbors  ;  everywhere  our  need  is  Zeus. 
We  also  are  his  offspring. 

The  apostle  says  : 

In  him  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being;  as  certain 
even  of  your  own  poets  have  said,  For  we  also  are  his  off- 
spring. 

Both  place  the  thought  of  our  own  life  in  God  imme- 
diately before  that  of  his  paternal  relation  in  us. 

To  say  that  the  apostle  picked  up  the  words  of 
Aratus  and  Cleanthes  in  the  street,  where  they  were  a 
commonplace  phrase,  that  he  used  the  plural  instead 
of  the  singular  only  by  accident,  and  that   he  followed 


INTRODUCTORY  XV 

the  sequence  of  thought  found  in  Aratus  without  being 
aware  of  it,  is  to  resort  to  such  desperate  measures  as 
amount  to  a  confession  of  error. 

Again.  The  Apostle  Paul  knew  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  God  to  carry  the  gospel  to  the  Gentiles, 
and  it  is  incredible  that  he  should  not  wish  to  become 
acquainted  with  Gentile  modes  of  thought  and  speech, 
so  as  to  be  prepared  the  better  to  accomplish  his  min- 
istry. The  missionary  to  any  people  does  not  consider 
himself  adequately  equipped  for  his  office  till  he  has 
learned  as  much  as  possible  of  their  books  ;  and  since 
such  a  study  is  the  dictate  of  ordinary  common  sense 
we  ought  not  to  suppose  that  it  was  neglected  by  the 
apostle  who  was  emphatically  "a  wise  master-builder." 

Lastly.  He  had  abundant  opportunity.  He  was 
born  in  a  Greek-speaking  city,  and  spent  his  early  boy- 
hood there.  His  father  had  lived  long  enough  in  the 
Gentile  world  to  acquire  Roman  citizenship.  Thus 
Greek  was  his  native  tongue.  It  is  true  that  he  went 
to  Jerusalem  early  ;  but  he  returned  to  Tarsus  after 
his  conversion,  and  passed  years  in  it  before  his  severer 
labors   began.     Thus  Godet  writes' : 

It  has  often  been  denied  that  the  quotations  from  Greek  poets 
which  are  to  be  found  in  St.  Paul's  writings  are  proofs  of  his 
having  had  a  certain  degree  of  Greek  culture  ;  and  to  sup- 
port this  denial  it  has  been  asserted  that  he  was  too  young 
when  brought  to  Jerusalem,  and  there  educated,  to  have  previ- 
ously imbibed  the  elements  of  profane  literature.  But  those 
who  maintain  this  view  forget  this  sojourn  of  Paul  at  Tarsus, 
when  he  must  at  least  have  been  considerably  over  thirty,  since 
before  the  age  of  thirty  he  would  hardly  have  been  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Damascus  as  delegate  of  the  Sanhedrin.      During  the 

1  "  Studies  on  the  Epistles,"  p.  4. 


XVI  INTRODUCTORY 

few  years  which  he  now  spent  with  his  relatives,  waiting  until 
God  should  call  him  to  his  work  among  the  Gentiles,  he  had 
time  to  acquire  a  good  knowledge  of  their  literature,  and  no 
doubt  tried  to  do  so,  in  order  to  be  more  fit  for  the  work  which 
lay  before  him.  The  literary  resources  of  his  native  town,  at 
that  time  a  rival  of  Athens  and  Alexandria,  would  therefore, 
no  doubt  be  made  use  of  by  him  as  far  as  this  was  possible  for 
a  Jew. 

At  least  six,1  and  perhaps  eight  years  elapsed  between 
the  conversion  of  Saul  of  Tarsus  and  his  call  to  An- 
tioch  by  Barnabas,  when  the  vast  activities  of  his  min- 
istry to  the  Gentiles  began.  The  interval  must  have 
been  one  of  preparation. 

These  arguments  are  sufficient,  in  the  absence  of 
counter  evidence,  and  henceforth  the  burden  of  proof  is 
on  the  other  side.  Is  there  any  evidence  that  the  apos- 
tle was  not  acquainted  with  Greek  literature?  There  is 
none  whatever.  If  there  is  none,  then  his  skill  as  a 
writer  of  Greek,  his  quotations  from  Greek  poets,  his 
birth  of  Greek-speaking  parents  and  in  a  Greek  city,  his 
abundant  opportunities  to  study  the  works  of  the  great 
Greek  authors,  his  call  by  God  to  preach  to  the  Gen- 
tiles in  Greek,  his  amazing  activity  of  mind  and  body, 
his  scrupulous  care  to  take  every  advantage  of  circum- 
stances in  presenting  the  Cross  to  the  Gentile  world  ; 
all  these  things  join  to  render  it  impossible  to  doubt 
that  he  was  well  acquainted  with  Greek  literature.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  say,  however,  as  some  have  done  on 
these  grounds,  that  he  was  a  master  of  Greek  literature, 
i  ilist,  an  expert. 

In  order  to  save  space  I  have  merely  referred  to  the 


See  The  <  I  table  in  l'anar's  ••  St.  Paul,"  Vol,  II., p.  624. 


INTRODUCTORY  XV11 

longer  passages  of  Scripture  which  I  have  discussed, 
and  have  not  produced  them  in  full,  and  it  will  be  neces- 
sary at  times  for  the  reader  to  turn  to  these  in  his 
Bible  and  examine  them  in  the  light  of  their  context, 
that  he  may  weigh  my  argument  intelligently. 

It  will  be  rightly  inferred  that  my  plan  does  not  em- 
brace the  discussion  of  all  the  quotations,  but  only  of 
those  with  which  some  difficulty  has  been  found.  I  think 
I  have  omitted  none  that  have  been  called  in  question 
by  any  recent  scholarly  writer  with  whose  work  I  am 
acquainted.  I  have  paid  special  attention  to  the  criti- 
cisms of  Kuenen  in  his  "  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in 
Israel,"  because  they  are  the  boldest  and  the  ablest 
expression  of  negative  criticism  on  this  subject.  I  have 
also  kept  in  view  the  works  of  Dopke  and  Toy. 

So  far  as  I  am  aware,  this  is  the  first  attempt  everj/' 
made  to  compare  the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament 
from  the  Old  with  those  of  general  literature.  I  have 
no  doubt  that,  laboring  in  a  field  so  vast  and  so  wholly 
untrodden,  I  may  have  erred  in  certain  minor  details  of 
my  work.  But  I  think  that  my  main  conclusions  will 
not  be  disproved,  for  I  have  sought  to  render  my  cita- 
tions from  ancient  and  modern  literature  so  abundant 
that  no  one  can  call  in  question  the  chief  statements 
which  they  support.  I  have  also  sought  to  make  them 
so  clear  that  any  person  may  verify  them  for  himself. 
I  have  kept  before  my  mind  the  wants  of  the  reader 
acquainted  only  with  English,  and  have  avoided,  as  far 
as  possible,  technicalities  which  he  could  not  appreci- 
ate or  weigh.  I  have  used  throughout  my  work  the 
Revised  version  of  the  Bible,  except  where  I  have  said 
that    I    cite  from   some   other  version.      In  a  few  in- 


XV111  INTRODUCTORY 

stances  I  have  followed  the  American  revisers  where 
they  differ  from  the  English. 

In  quoting  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  I  have 
availed  myself  of  approved  translations  wherever  I 
could,  and  I  hope  that  this  general  acknowledgment 
of  my  indebtedness  will  be  deemed  sufficient,  and  that 
thus  I  shall  be  freed  from  the  necessity  of  encumbering 
my  pages  with  a  multitude  of  footnotes  of  no  value  to 
the  reader.  I  have  compared  the  translation  with  the 
original  in  almost  every  case,  that  there  might  be  no 
doubt  of  its  substantial  accuracy.  I  have  drawn  spe- 
cially from  Bryant's  "  Homer,"  Jowett's  "  Plato,"  and 
Goodwin's  "Plutarch." 

I  have  thought  of  two  methods  of  treating  the  dif- 
ficulties which  I  have  stated.  One  would  be  to  take 
up  the  quotations  as  they  occur  in  the  New  Testament 
and  weigh  in  turn  the  objections  brought  against  each. 
This  would  possess  the  advantage  of  a  well-recognized 
order  in  the  succession  of  the  books. and  chapters  and 
verses.  But  inasmuch  as  the  same  objection  is  often 
made  to  a  score  of  the  quotations,  it  would  have  to  be 
presented  and  discussed  many  times,  and  the  repeti- 
tion would  be  wearisome.  Moreover,  as  the  reader  will 
perceive  on  advancing  farther  in  this  study,  the  dis- 
cussion of  each  objection  is  so  voluminous  that  it  can- 
not be  given  more  than  once.  I  have  chosen,  therefore, 
a  second  method,  and  shall  discuss  the  difficulties  in 
turn,  and  shall  take  up  the  quotations  as  they  are 
brought  forward  by  certain  critics  to  illustrate  these 
difficulties.  This  method,  however,  is  subject  to  a 
serious  disadvantage.  It  frequently  occurs  that  sev- 
eral difficulties  are  found  with  one  and  the  same  quota- 


INTRODUCTORY  XIX 

tion,  and  hence  it  becomes  necessary  to  consider  the 
passage  in  several  different  chapters,  so  that  the  entire 
discussion  of  it  can  be  followed  only  by  turning  to 
several  places.  I  have  endeavored  to  modify  this  dis- 
advantage, as  far  as  possible,  by  abundant  cross  refer- 
ences. 

For  invaluable  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  this 
book  I  am  indebted  to  my  wife,  and  to  my  son,  Frank- 
lin Johnson,  Jr. 

Franklin  Johnson. 

University  of  Chicago,  October,  1895. 


THE  QUOTATIONS 

OF   THE 

NEW  TESTAMENT  FROM  THE  OLD 


THE    SEPTUAGINT   VERSION 

THE  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Old 
are  not  usually  exact  translations  of  the  Hebrew ; 
the  majority  of  them  are  drawn  from  the  Greek  version 
called  the  Septuagint,  and  follow  this  where  it  agrees  with 
the  original,  and  also  where  it  departs  from  it.  Less 
frequently  they  adhere  to  the  Hebrew  and  abandon  the 
Septuagint.  In  some  instances,  finally,  they  abandon 
both  as  far  as  mere  language  is  concerned.  Some  of 
the  quotations  belong  in  part  to  one  of  these  classes, 
and  in  part  to  another  or  to  others.  The  proportion 
of  quotations  from  the  Septuagint  is  stated  thus  by 
Kuenen,1  whose  argument  I  am  about  to  consider : 

A  German  scholar,  who  has  subjected  the  whole  of  the  cita- 
tions in  the  epistles  of  Paul  to  a  very  exact  examination,  comes 
to  the  conclusion  that  an  unacquaintance  with  the  Septuagint  is 
shown   in   only  two  of   the  eighty-four,  while  of  the  remaining  ?  V 
eighty-two   there    are  only  twelve  which  vary  essentially  from    " 
this  translation.      Another,    whose    book    is  itself   a  continuous 

1  "  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,"  p.  455. 


2  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

proof  that  he  would  gladly  give  a  different  testimony,  begins  by 
acknowledging  that  "the  Old  Testament  quotations  are  for  the 
most  part  either  borrowed  word  for  word  from  the  Septuagint,  or 
at  least  agree  with  that  translation.  The  passages  from  the 
Hebrew  text  form  a  minority  which  is  hardly  worth  noticing." 

Turpie,1  on  careful  examination,  finds  that  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament,  even  when  they  have  quoted  in 
a  general  way  from  the  Septuagint  version,  have  de- 
parted from  it  somewhat  in  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  their 
quotations,  have  altered  it  to  a  less  accordance  with  the 
Hebrew  in  nearly  twenty-eight  per  cent.,  and  to  a  closer 
accordance  in  nearly  four  per  cent.,  and  have  kept  it 
unaltered  in  not  quite  thirty-three  per  cent.  The  ma- 
jority of  these  variations  are  the  result  of  memory- 
quoting,  and  will  be  accounted  for  in  our  next  chapter  ; 
at  present  we  have  to  consider  only  the  fact  that  the 
Septuagint  was  used  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment as  the  basis  of  their  quotations. 

The  first  of  all  the  arguments  adduced  by  Kuenen 
to  prove  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  mis- 
take in  their  exegesis  of  the  Old,  is  drawn  from  this 
prevalent  use  of  the  Septuagint,  and  I  shall  permit 
him  to  state  it  here  in  his  own  way: 

If  now  the  Greek  translation  were  an  accurate  reproduction  of 
the  original,  or  if,  where  it  varies,  it  followed  a  better  text  than 
that  which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in  the  manuscripts  and  edi- 
tions, this  use  of  it  would  be  nothing  surprising,  or  would  even 
testify  to  the  accuracy  of  the  New  Testament  writers.  But  the 
<  ontrary  is  true.  In  the  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  pass  i 
of  the  New  Testament  which  contain  citations  from  the  Old,  of 
course  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  Old  occurs.      Yet 


The  6ld  Testament  in  the  New. 


THE   SEPTUAGINT   VERSION  3 

we  notice  more  than  one  divergence  of  the  Septuagint  from  the 
original,  which  either  is  of  very  doubtful  value  or  merits  distinct 
disapproval,  whether  it  be  that  the  translator  had  an  incorrect 
text  before  him,  or  that  he  did  not  understand  his  original,  and 
therefore  gave  a  wrong  rendering  of  it. 

The  rest  of  the  argument  consists  of  examples  to 
show  that  the  faults  of  the  Septuagint  are  not  always 
amended  when  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  quote 
it,  but  are  often  transferred  to  their  pages  without  no- 
tice. I  admit  this,  and  hence  need  not  reproduce  the 
proofs  which  Kuenen  has  collected. 

In  only  a  few  instances,  however,  does  Kuenen  claim 
that  the  New  Testament  writers  have  gained  any  ad- 
vantage in  argument  by  quoting  the  inexact  translation 
of  the  Septuagint,  instead  of  making  an  exact  transla- 
tion for  themselves  ;  and  in  all  these  examples  he  is 
mistaken,  as  I  shall  now  show. 

One  is  the  quotation  of  Isa.  59  :  20,  21  and  27  : 
9,  in  Rom.  11  :  26,  27. 


Isa.  59  :  20,  21. 

A  redeemer  shall  come  to 
Zion,  and  unto  them  that 
turn  from  trangression  in 
Jacob,  saith  the  Lord.  And 
as  for  me,  this  is  my  cov- 
enant with  them. 

Isa.  27  :  9. 

By  this  shall  the  iniquity 
of  Jacob  be  purged,  and  this 
is  all  the  fruit  of  taking 
away  his  sin. 


The  quotation  in  the  epistle  is  thus  composite,  being 


Rom.  11  :  26,  27. 

There  shall  come  out  of 
Zion  the  Deliverer  ; 

He  shall  turn  away  ungod- 
liness from  Jacob : 

And  this  is  my  covenant 
unto  them, 

When  I  shall  take  away 
their  sins. 


4  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

formed  of  two  different  passages  from  the  prophet. 
The  ancient  custom  of  quoting  in  this  manner  will  be 
considered  in  our  fifth  chapter. 

There  are  three  marked  changes  in  the  quotation  : 
First,  the  prophet  says  "a  redeemer  shall  come  to 
Zion  "  ;  while  the  apostle  quotes  him  as  saying  "  out 
of  Zion."  However,  even  Kuenen  does  not  complain 
of  this,  and  Toy  writes  :  "  No  additional  Messianic 
sense  is  gained  by  the  alteration."  I  pass  it  by, 
therefore,  as  of  no  significance. 

This  first  change,  which  is  confessedly  without  sig- 
nificance, is  made  by  the  apostle  himself.  The  second 
is  made  by  the  Septuagint,  and  is  accepted  by  the 
apostle  because  it  does  not  affect  his  argument  in  any 
way.  The  prophet  says  the  "  deliverer  shall  come  to 
them  that  turn  from  transgression,"  but  the  Septua- 
gint, followed  by  the  apostle,  "  he  shall  turn  away  un- 
godliness from  "  the  people.  That  the  change  does  not 
affect  the  argument  of  the  apostle  will  be  apparent  if 
we  state  the  argument  and  then  look  back  at  the  orig- 
inal passage.  The  argument  is  that  "  all  Israel  shall  be 
saved,"  or  in  other  words,  that  the  Jews  in  general  shall 
turn  from  sin  and  accept  the  Messiah  as  their  Re- 
deemer. This  is  also  the  teaching  of  the  prophet  in 
the  text  quoted  and  in  the  context.  Going  back 
to  the  eighteenth  verse  of  the  chapter  quoted  from, 
we  find  a  prediction  of  judgments  :  "  According  to 
their  deeds,  accordingly  he  will  repay,  fury  to  his  ad- 
versaries, recompense  to  his  enemies;  to  the  islands  he 
will  repay  recompense."  In  the  next  verse  the  result 
of  this  interposition  of  God  is  portrayed  ;  it  is  a  gen- 
eral turning  of   the  world  to  the  true  God  :   "  And  they 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  5 

shall  fear  the  name  of  Jehovah  from  the  west,  and  his 
glory  from  the  rising  of  the  sun.  When  the  enemy- 
shall  come  in  like  a  flood,  the  spirit  of  Jehovah  shall 
drive  him  away."  That  this  prediction  refers  to  the  com- 
ing of  the  world  to  Jehovah  is  held  by  interpreters  in 
general,  among  whom  I  may  mention  Cheyne,  Hender- 
son, Alexander,  Knobel,  and  Delitzsch,  the  last  of 
whom  paraphrases  it  as  follows  :  "  In  all  quarters  of  the 
globe  will  fear  of  the  name  and  of  the  glory  of  Jeho- 
vah become  naturalized  among  the  nations  of  the 
world."  Therefore  the  prophet  is  looking  forward  into 
the  Messianic  age.  Then  follows  the  promise  quoted  by 
the  New  Testament  writer  :  "  A  redeemer  shall  come 
to  Zion,  and  unto  them  that  turn  from  transgression  in 
Jacob."  That  those  who  "  turn  from  transgression  in 
Jacob"  are  the  Jewish  people  in  general,  and  not  a 
small  remnant,  is  evident  from  the  preceding  verse, 
which  foretells  the  conversion  of  the  world.  There- 
fore the  change  made  by  the  Septuagint  and  not  cor- 
rected by  the  apostle  renders  the  passage  neither  more 
nor  less  a  prophecy  of  the  gathering  of  the  Jews  into 
the  church  ;  and  it  is  as  such  alone  that  he  uses  it. 

Kuenen  lays  greater  stress  on  the  third  change  ;  for 
the  apostle  cites  from  the  Septuagint  its  free  version 
of  the  second  passage,  as  of  the  first.  But,  just  as  the 
first  of  the  two  prophecies  of  which  the  quotation  is 
composed  proclaims  the  coming  of  the  Deliverer  to 
Israel  in  general,  as  really  in  the  Hebrew  form  as  in  the 
Greek,  so  the  second  proclaims  the  purging  of  sin  from 
Israel  in  general,  as  really  in  the  Hebrew  form  as  in 
the  Greek.  Let  us  examine  it  also  in  the  light  of  its 
context.      Beginning  at  the  sixth  verse,  we  see  that  the 


6  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

time  to  which  the  prophecy  looks  is  the  Messianic  age  : 
"  In  the  days  to  come  shall  Jacob  take  root,  Israel  shall 
blossom  and  bud  ;  and  they  shall  fill  the  face  of  the 
world  with  fruit."  That  this  refers  to  the  world  at 
large,  and  not  merely  to  the  Holy  Land,  is  held 
by  such  interpreters  as  Cheyne,  Bredenkamp,  and 
Delitzsch  ;  the  last  of  whom  writes  :  "  The  prophet 
here  says,  in  a  figure,  the  same  that  the  apostle  says  in 
Romans  n  :  12,  that  Israel,  when  restored  once  more 
to  favor  as  a  nation,  will  become  *  the  riches  of  the 
Gentiles.'  "  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  verses  God  de- 
clares that  he  will  afflict  Israel,  though  not  beyond 
measure.  In  the  ninth  verse  he  depicts  the  effect  of 
the  affliction.1  "Therefore,  by  this  shall  the  iniquity 
of  Jacob  be  purged  ;  and  this  is  all  the  fruit  "  of  the 
affliction,  "to  take  away  his  sins."  The  removal  of 
the  sins  of  Israel  in  the  Messianic  age  is  thus  asserted 
as  strongly  by  the  original  Hebrew  as  by  the  Septuagint 
version  which  the  apostle  quotes.  Here  again,  the 
change  which  he  adopts  from  the  Septuagint  gives  him 
no  advantage  whatever,  except  possibly  that  of  a  brief 
statement  of  the  purport  of  the  entire  prophecy. 

Let  us  sum  up  the  results  of  our  discussion  of  this 
quotation.  The  changes  to  which  Kucnen  objects 
were  found  by  the  New  Testament  writer  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint version,  and  he  did  not  go  out  of  his  way  to 
correct  them,  because  they  did  not  at  all  concern  the 
movement  of  his  argument,  nor  alter  the  essential 
meaning  of  the  prophecies  to  which  he  appealed. 
^   It  is  fair  always  to  ask  what  it   is  that  a  writer  seeks 

1  So  Alexander,  Hitzig,  Henderson,  Knobel, 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  7 

to  prove  or  to  illustrate  by  a  quotation,  before  we  pro- 
nounce him  guilty  of  unfaithfulness  in  retaining  in  it 
some  imperfection  of  the  version  to  which  he  appeals. 
If  this  rule  were  observed,  the  difficulties  which  have 
been  found  with  Heb.  2  :  6-8,  would  vanish  at  once. 
The  writer  of  this  epistle  is  proving  the  lofty  nature  of 
man,  and  quotes  from  the  Septuagint  version  of  Ps.  8  :  5 
for  the  purpose  :  "  Thou  madest  him  a  little  lower  than 
the  angels."  Many  critics  tell  us  that  the  Hebrew  word 
here  rendered  "angels,"  means  God;  and  others  regard 
themselves  as  bound  to  show  that  it  means  angels,  or 
to  abandon  the  doctrine  of  plenary  inspiration.  The 
contest  over  the  passage  has  been  persistent,  writers  of 
one  school  maintaining  that  it  proves  the  author  of  the 
epistle  to  have  been  ignorant  or  careless  of  the  He- 
brew, and  not  inspired,  and  writers  of  another  school 
maintaining  the  accuracy  of  the  translation  which  he 
adopts.  "  Unless  it  had  so  signified,"  says  Turpie,» 
"it  would  not  have  been  found  in  the  inspired  writings 
of  the  New  Testament  translated  by  such  a  word." 
The  whole  controversy  is  idle,  for  the  New  Testament 
writer  gains  nothing  by  the  substitution  of  the  word 
angels  for  the  word  God,  if  that  is  indeed  the  meaning 
of  the  Hebrew  word.  Were  the  case  reversed,  had 
the  Hebrew  said  angels,  and  had  the  New  Testament 
writer  quoted  it  as  saying  God,  this  would  have  been  to 
secure  an  unfair  advantage  for  his  assertion  of  the 
lofty  nature  of  man.  It  might  be  maintained,  indeed, 
that  he  loses  a  certain  force  of  proof  by  adopting  the 
Septuagint    statement,   which    lifts   man    near    to    the 

1  "  The  Old  Testament  in  the  New,"  p.  119. 


8  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

angels,  instead  of  the  Hebrew,  which  perhaps  lifts  him 
near  to  the  Godhead  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  he  con- 
siders the  more  moderate  declaration  of  the  Septua- 
gint  as  strong  enough  for  his  purpose.  His  argument 
would  be  exactly  the  same,  whether  he  quoted  the 
psalmist  as  saying  God,  or  as  saying  angels  ;  for  in 
either  case  he  would  prove  the  very  lofty  nature  of 
man,  which  is  all  that  he  wishes  to  do. 

In  carrying  his  argument  to  its  conclusion,  it  still 
remains  adequate  to  his  purpose  to  write  "angels," 
with  the  Septuagint,  instead  of  "God,"  with  the  He- 
brew, if  that  is  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word. 
His  course  of  thought  is  this  :  Man  was  made  origi- 
nally "  a  little  lower  than  the  angels,"  or  than  "  God  "  ; 
he  was  "  crowned  with  glory  and  honor  "  ;  he  was  "  set 
over  the  works"  of  nature  ;  and  "all  things  were  put 
in  subjection  under  him."  Such  were  his  constitution 
and  his  earthly  lot  by  the  divine  appointment  at  his 
creation.  That  the  psalm  here  quoted  refers  to  the 
original  state  of  man,  and  not  to  his  present  degrada- 
tion in  sin,  is  held  by  such  interpreters  as  Dean  John- 
son in  the  "  Speaker's  Commentary,"  Toy,  in  his 
"  Quotations,"  and  Delitzsch.  The  last  great  critic  calls 
it  "a  lyric  echo  of  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  creation," 
and  adds:  "The  poet  regards  man  in  the  light  of  the 
purpose  for  which  he  was  created."  This  pur] 
however,  man  does  not  now  fulfill  ;  the  position  for 
which    he    was    formed    he   does    not    OCCUpy  ;    he    has 

fallen  far  be-low  the  magnificent  inheritance  provided 
for  him.  But  the  intention  of  God  in  the  creation  of 
man   is   fulfilled  in  Jesus,  the  Son  of  Alan,  the   ideal 

Man,  the  I  load  oi    lniin.mil  \\      As  a  man,  he  was  made 


THE  SEPTUAGINT   VERSION  9 

"a  little  lower  than  the  angels";1  or,  if  one  prefers, 
"than  God,"  since  he  himself  testified,  "My  Father  is 
greater  than  I." '     Thus  the  argument  is  perfect,  no 

1  In  our  Common  version  of  Ileb.  1  :  6.  we  read:  "And  again,  when 
he  bringeth  in  the  first-begotten  into  the  world,  he  saith,  And  let  all  the 
angels  of  God  worship  him."  There  is  no  discrepancy  between  that  pas- 
sage and  the  one  before  us.  That  sees  Christ  in  his  concrete  personality ; 
this  in  his  human  nature.  Moreover,  that  passage,  according  to  the  best 
interpreters,  must  be  referred  either  to  his  resurrection  or  to  his  second 
coming,  and  hence  to  his  glorification,  for  the  sentence  must  be  rendered, 
not,  "  And  again,  when  he  bringeth,"  but,  as  in  the  Revised  version, 
"  When  he  again  bringeth,"  when  he  a  second  time  bringeth,  "  his  first- 
born into  the  world";  and  moreover,  the  Greek  word  rendered  "bring- 
eth" is  in  a  future  tense,  and  in  the  margin  of  the  Revised  version  is  ren- 
dered  "  shall  have  brought." 

2  The  interpretation  of  the  passage  up  to  this  point  is  universally  ac- 
cepted. From  this  point  on,  however,  interpreters  differ.  The  difference 
does  not  concern  my  argument,  which  relates  only  to  the  earlier  part  of 
the  text.  Yet  I  may  say  that  1  hold  the  view  of  Stuart  and  Hofmann. 
The  incarnation  though  it  was  the  humiliation  of  the  Son  of  God,  may  be 
considered  as  the  exal  ation  of  the  son  of  Mary,  the  bringing  into  being  of 
a  human  nature  of  the  highest  possible  type,  but  confined,  as  we  are,  to 
the  body  and  exposed  to  want  and  pain  and  mortality.  In  this  sense 
Christ  was  "  made  a  little  lower  than  the  angels  "  "  because  of  the  suffer- 
ing of  death  "  to  which  man  is  doomed  for  his  sin  ;  he  was  "  crowned  with 
glory  and  honor"  and  "all  things  were  put  in  subjection  under  him," 
"  that  by  the  grace  of  God  he  should  taste  death  for  every  man.' '  That 
is.  he  was  made  man  because  we  are  exposed  to  physical  and  spiritual 
death  ;  he  was  made  man  that  he  might  die  for  us.  But  he  was  not  made 
sinful  and  degraded  man ;  he  was  made  as  man  was  made  in  the  begin- 
ning, but  "  little  lower  than  the  angels,"  or  "  than  God,"  and  "  crowned 
with  such  glory  and  honor"  as  the  first  man  possessed  before  his  sin. 
The  Gospels  give  us  abundant  evidence  on  every  page  that  he  had  do- 
minion over  nature  during  his  earthly  ministry,  so  that  there  is  no  need  to 
refer  the  passage  to  his  present  state  of  exaltation.  This  interpretation 
seems  to  me  the  only  one  grounded  in  a  simple  and  grammatical  reading 
of  the  text  and  context.  By  him  we  are  to  attain  our  lofty  nature  and 
destiny:  God  is  to  "  bring  many  sons  unto  glory"  through  the  "  author 
of  their  salvation";  for  now,  since  the  incarna'ion  of  Jesus,  "he  that 
sanctifieth  and  they  that  are  sanctified  are  all  of  one"  common  human 


IO  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

matter  which  of  the  two  meanings  is  adopted.  It  is 
worthy  of  further  observation  that  the  great  majority 
of  commentators,  theologians,  and  preachers,  though 
they  may  not  agree  as  to  its  interpretation,  find  it  suffi- 
cient as  it  stands,  and  feel  no  need  of  the  substitution 
of  the  word  "  God  "  for  the  word  "angels." 

Another  illustration  of  the  equal  value  to  the  argu- 
ment of  the  Septuagint  translation  and  of  the  Hebrew 
original,  though  it  is  possible  that  they  differ  slightly 
in  sense,  is  found  in  Heb.  i  :  7,  where  the  writer 
quotes  from  Ps.  104  :  4  : 

Who  maketh  his  angels  winds, 
And  his  ministers  a  flame  of  fire. 

The  quotation  follows  the  Septuagint  almost  exactly. 
It  is  said  by  many  that  the  passage  in  the  Hebrew, 
interpreted  in  the  light  of  its  context,  presents  a  dif- 
ferent thought,  which  would  require  in  English  a  dif- 
ferent order  of  the  words  : 

Who  maketh  winds  his  messengers 
And  flaming  fire  his  ministers. 

It  is  claimed,  that  is,  that  in  the  Hebrew  God  is  said 
to  make  winds  and  flames  obey  him  and  accomplish  his 
purposes  as  his  angels  do,  while  in  the  Septuagint  he 
is  said  to  make  the  angels  obey  him  and  accomplish  his 
purposes  as  the  winds  and  flames  do.  This  view  of 
the  Hebrew  is  admitted  to  be  very  doubtful  ;'  but  for- 

nature,    I  telitzscb  differs  widely  from  I  lofmann  com  eming  this  passage,  \>  I 
it  admiration  "i  his  labors  in  elucidating  it.     Zimmer  criti- 
cizes the  exegesis  <>l"  riofmann  in  his"  I  Probleme,"  and  yet 
cannot  h'-l|>  praising  it.     His  objections  lead  me  to  ■  higher  estimate  of  it. 

1  Against  it  arc  Ellicott  and  Alfurd. 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  II 

tunately  we  need  not  discuss  it ;  we  need  only  consider 
what  it  is  the  writer  of  the  epistle  here  teaches,  in 
order  to  perceive  that  the  evidence  is  perfect  in  either 
case.  His  statement  is  that  the  Son  of  God  is  supe- 
rior to  the  angels.  His  proof  is  that  God  institutes  a 
comparison  between  the  angels  and  the  winds  and 
flames,  while  he  never  compares  his  Son  to  such  inani- 
mate forces,  but  speaks  of  him  as  divine,  saying,  "Thy 
throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever  and  ever."  Our  conception 
of  Christ  would  be  very  different  had  God  instituted  a 
comparison  between  him  and  the  inanimate  forces  of 
nature,  and  had  said, 

He  maketh  the  winds  his  Son 
And  a  flame  of  fire  his  first-born  ; 
Or, 

He  maketh  his  Son  a  wind 

And  his  first-born  a  flame  of  fire. 

Some  of  the  foremost  biblical  critics '  find  in  this 
passage  of  the  Old  Testament  a  proof  that  its  writer 
held  the  winds  and  flames  to  be  a  sort  of  drapery  or 
real  embodiment  of  the  angels,  and  the  angels  to  be  the 
moving  spirits  of  these  their  corporeal  abodes  !  One 
would  think  that  these  men  were  not  accustomed  to 
poetry.  The  fact  which  underlies  the  comparison— 
for  we  have  only  a  comparison  here — is  the  ministerial 
office  alike  of  the  angels  and  of  the  winds  and  flames, 
while  Christ  is  Lord  of  all.  This  is  the  argument. 
Hence  the  sacred  writer  does  not  need  to  enter  into 
any  minute  and  teasing  discussion  of  the  Hebrew,  or 
to  depart  from  the  only  Bible  accessible  to  his  readers, 

1  As  Gesenius. 


12  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

since  the  poetic  comparison  between  the  angels  and 
the  inanimate  forces  of  nature  is  perfectly  clear,  which- 
ever view  of  the  Hebrew  is  taken. 

It  is  objected,  again,  that  the  Hebrew  says  nothing 
about  angels,  but  speaks  only  of  "  messengers  "  in  a 
general  sense,  so  that  the  writer  has  gotten  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint  a  proof  which  he  could  not  have  found  in  the 
original.  The  same  Hebrew  word  means  messenger 
and  angel,  just  as  the  same  Greek  word  means  both. 
The  angels  are  the  special  messengers  of  God,  and 
hence  they  are  designated  by  this  convenient  term.  It 
is  therefore  mere  assertion  that  in  the  passage  before 
us  the  original  writer  meant  messengers  in  general, 
and  not  angels.  The  assertion  is  not  sustained  by  a 
particle  of  proof  of  any  sort.  On  the  contrary,  there 
is  no  passage  in  the  Old  Testament,  unless  this  is  an 
exception  to  an  otherwise  universal  rule,  in  which  the 
word  is  used  of  purely  inanimate  forces ;  it  always  re- 
fers to  an  intelligent  being,  either  celestial  or  terres- 
trial. That  the  word  signifies  angels  in  this  place  is 
understood  by  the  two  greatest  Hebrew  lexicographers, 
Gesenius  and  Fiirst,  and  by  the  vast  majority  of  com- 
petent Hebrew  critics. 

Another  example  adduced  by  Kuenen  is  the  quota- 
tion of  Isa.  29  :  13,  made  by  our  Lord,  and  recorded 
in  Matt.  [5:8,  9  and  Mark  7  :  6,  7.  The  prophet 
wrote  :  "  The  Lord  said,  Forasmuch  as  this  people  draw 
nigh  unto  me,  and  with  their  mouth  and  with  their  lips 
do  honor  me,  but  have  removed  their  heart  far  from 
and  their  fear  of  me  is  a  commandment  of  men 
which  hath  been  taught  them."  The  Pharisees  criti- 
i  the  disciples  for  " transgressing  the  tradition   of 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  13 

the  elders  "  in  neglecting  to  "  wash  their  hands  when 
they  ate  bread."  Their  Master  answered  the  critics, 
telling  them  that  they  placed  their  tradition  above 
"  the  commandment  of  God,"  and  set  aside  the  latter 
to  observe  the  former.  He  gave  them  an  example  of 
their  breach  of  the  divine  law  by  means  of  their  tradi- 
tion, citing  the  well-known  case  of  the  "corban." 
Then  he  quoted  Isaiah's  condemnation  of  those  who 
worship  with  the  lips  only,  and  not  with  the  heart,  and 
render  a  service  which  is  merely  "  a  commandment  of 
men,"  and  not  such  as  God  himself  requires.  Nothing 
could  be  more  appropriate  than  this  passage. 

Nor  is  it  either  more  or  less  appropriate  in  its  Sep- 
tuagint  form,  which  the  evangelists  adopt,  with  a 
slight  change,  as  follows  : 

This  people  honoreth  me  with  their  lips  ; 

But  their  heart  is  far  from  me. 

But  in  vain  do  they  worship  me, 

Teaching  as  their  doctrines  the  precepts  of  men. 

Our  Lord  says  truly  that  in  these  words  Isaiah 
prophesied  of  the  Pharisees  to  whom  he  quotes  them. 
Isaiah  prophesied  to  the  Jews  of  his  own  time  ;  but,  as 
the  Scriptures  are  for  all  men  of  all  ages  and  all 
places,  he  also  prophesied  of  all  those  who  at  any  time 
bring  to  God  an  external  worship,  and  put  human  pre- 
cepts in  the  room  of  the  divine.  This  is  no  accommo- 
dation of  the  prophecy ;  since  it  inheres  in  the  very 
nature  of  prophecy,  which  is  an  expression  of  the  will 
of  the  unchanging  Deity,  that  its  underlying  principles 
shall  be  of  universal  and  perpetual  application. 

The  Septuagint  differs  a  little   both   from  the  He- 

B 


14  QUOTATION'S   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

brew  and   from  the  form   of  the  passage  used  by  the 
evangelists.      It  has  : 

But  in  vain  do  they  worship  me, 
Teaching  precepts  of  men,  and  teachings. 

This  sentence  the  evangelists  slightly  alter,  in  order 
to  express  the  real  meaning  of  the  prophet.  Thus 
Broadus  writes  : 

Matthew  and  Mark  have  slightly  modified  the  Septuagint  into 
"teaching  teachings  (which  are)  precepts  of  men."  This  not 
only  improves  the  phraseology  of  the  Septuagint,  but  brings  out 
the  prophet's  thought  more  clearly  than  would  be  done  by  a 
literal  translation  of  the  Hebrew,  for  Isaiah  means  to  distinguish 
between  a  worship  of  God  that  is  taught  by  men,  and  that  which 
is  according  to  the  teaching  of  God's  word. 

Such  verbal  changes  to  develop  the  sense  more  clearly 
are  considered  in  our  fourth  chapter. 

Yet  another  example  adduced  by  Kuenen  is  Amos 
9  :  II,  12,  as  quoted  by  James  in  Acts  15  :  16,  17. 
The  prophet  predicts  the  raising  up  of  the  "  tabernacle 
of  David,"  "as  in  the  days  of  old,"  "  that  they  may 
possess  the  remnant  of  Edom,  and  all  the  nations, 
which  are  called  by  my  name,  saith  the  Lord  that  doeth 
this."  Instead  of  "the  remnant  of  Edom,"  the  Sep- 
tuagint and  James  have  "the  residue  of  men."  This 
is  the  change  criticised  by  Kuenen,  on  the  ground  that 
it  favors  unduly  the  thesis  of  James,  who  wished  to 
slmw  that  the  gospel  was  designed  i<>r  the  Gentiles, 
and  not  for  the  Jews  only.  It  docs  not  do  this,  how- 
ever, tor,  in  any  case,  the  very  next  phrase  of  the  quo- 
tation is  sufficiently  sweeping  and  emphatic  : 

And  .ill  the  Gentiles,   upon  whom  my  name  is  called. 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  1 5 

Whether  "the  residue  of  Edom,  and  all  the  nations," 
or  "the  residue  of  men,  and  all  the  nations,"  are  to  be 
brought  into  the  kingdom  of  David,  surely  makes  no 
difference.  Kuenen  would  limit  arbitrarily  the  expres- 
sion, "  all  the  nations  upon  whom  the  name  of  the  Lord 
is  called,"  to  the  peoples  immediately  around  Palestine, 
whom  Jehovah  was  to  conquer  by  means  of  Jewish 
armies.  Toy  takes  a  somewhat  similar  view,  but  goes 
farther  in  the  right  direction,  and  says  well,  that  the 
prediction,  though  it  related  "  immediately  to  the  res- 
toration of  the  political  fortunes  of  Judah,  and  in  this 
sense  was  never  fulfilled,  doubtless  involved  in  the 
prophetic  feeling  the  establishment  among  the  nations 
of  the  true  worship  of  the  one  true  God,  and  so  found 
its  realization  in  the  spread  of  Christianity  over  the 
world."  But  let  us  take  the  passage  with  the  limita- 
tions of  its  scope  which  Kuenen  prescribes.  Even 
thus,  it  will  teach  what  James  found  in  it,  the  truth 
that  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  not  be  confined  to  the 
Jews  under  the  reign  of  the  "  Son  of  David,"  but 
shall  break  through  its  ancient  walls,  and  be  extended 
over  the  Gentiles  around  the  Holy  Land.  The  posi- 
tion taken  by  James  was  not  that  the  kingdom  of  the 
Messiah  was  destined  to  become  strictly  universal,  but 
that  it  was  destined  to  throw  down  the  barriers  of  the 
one  people  and  embrace  other  peoples  as  well.  This 
was  all  he  needed  to  prove  ;  for  no  Jew  who  admitted 
this  truth  would  care  to  dispute  the  question  of  strict 
universality.  I  shall  close  my  discussion  of  this  pas- 
sage with  a  single  sentence  from  Hackett  :  "The  cita- 
tion from  Amos  was  pertinent  in  a  twofold  way  :  first, 
it    announced   that  the  heathen   were  to  be  admitted 


1 6  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

with  the  Jews  into  the  kingdom  of  Christ ;  and  sec- 
ondly, it  contained  no  recognition  of  circumcision,  or 
other  Jewish  ceremonies,  as  prerequisite  to  their  recep- 
tion." 

Still  another  instance  brought  forward  by  Kuenen  is 
the  quotation  of  Gen.  12:3,  and  perhaps  22  :  l8,  in 
Gal.  3  :  8.  The  promise  to  Abraham,  according  to  this 
critic,  was  that  all  peoples  of  the  earth  should  bless 
themselves  or  each  other  by  making  use  of  his  name, 
as  one  might  say  :  "  May  I  be  or  may  you  be  as  fortu- 
nate as  Abraham  was."  "  It  was  understood  differ- 
ently," the  critic  adds,  "  by  the  Greek  translator,  who 
renders  it  thus  :  'In  thee  shall  all  the  people  of  the  earth 
be  blessed.'  The  Apostle  Paul  adopted  this  interpreta- 
tion from  him,  and  thus  naturalized  it  in  the  Christian 
world." 

The  apostle  combined  in  his  quotation  the  essence  of 
two  promises  made  to  Abraham,  according  to  the  lit- 
erary custom  illustrated  in  our  fifth  chapter.  It  is 
admitted  by  all  that  the  meaning  of  the  two  is  the 
same.  The  only  question  is  whether  the  interpretation 
given  by  Kuenen,  or  that  given  by  the  apostle,  is  the 
correct  one.  The  great  majority  of  Hebrew  scholars 
sustain  the  latter,  among  whom  are  Keil,  Cook,  Lange, 
and  Delitzsch. 

The  question  is  not  one  of  mere  grammar,  but  of  the 
meaning  of  the  promise  It  is  freely  admitted  that  the 
sentence  in  the  Hebrew  text  is  reflexive,  and  may  be 
translated  literally:  "In  thee  shall  all  nations  bless 
themselves."  But  the  meaning  will  then  be.  as  I  >e 
litzsch  says:  They  shall  wish  themselves  blessed  as 
Abraham    was,  and    by    the   same   means    by    which   he 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  1 7 

secured  his  blessing,  that  is,  by  faith.  And  thus  desir- 
ing the  blessing  of  faith,  they  shall  obtain  it.  To  limit 
the  reference  of  the  promise  to  a  mere  glib  proverb,  is 
to  belittle  both  it  and  the  God  who  gave  it.  The  na- 
tions were  to  bless  themselves  in  Abraham  not  only  in 
word,  but  also  in  deed.  Thus  the  Septuagint,  adopted 
by  the  New  Testament  writer,  expresses  the  real 
thought  of  the  Hebrew  text. 

Again.  In  Heb,  12  :  5-13,  the  sacred  writer  exhorts 
his  readers  not  to  be  discouraged  by  sufferings,  which, 
he  reminds  them,  are  evidences  that  God  deals  with 
them  as  with  sons,  and  hence  of  their  divine  sonship. 
To  prove  this  proposition,  he  quotes  from  Prov.  3  : 
11,  12  : 

My  son,  regard  not  lightly  the  chastening  of  the  Lord, 
Nor  faint  when  thou  art  reproved  of  him  ; 
For  whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth, 
And  scourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth. 

This  is  from  the  Septuagint.  In  the  Hebrew  the  last 
line  is  as  follows  : 

Even  as  a  father  the  son  in  whom  he  delighteth. 

On  account  of  this  difference  Kuenen  complains  that 
the  quotation  is  taken  from  the  Septuagint  instead  of 
the  Hebrew.  But  it  is  evident  at  a  glance  that  the 
proposition  of  the  writer  is  proved  by  the  passage  in 
either  form,  and  in  one  form  just  as  cogently  as  in  the 
other ;  so  that  not  the  slightest  advantage  to  the  argu- 
ment is  either  gained  or  lost  by  the  use  of  the  Septua- 
gint version. 

But,  granting  that  the  faults  of  the  Septuagint,  in 


l8  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

the  passages  quoted,  do  not  affect  in  any  way  the  argu- 
ment of  the  New  Testament  writers,  were  they  not 
bound,  nevertheless,  to  correct  these  departures  from 
the  Hebrew  original,  or  to  translate  directly  from  it  ? 
Why  quote  from  versions  in  the  least  degree  imper- 
fect ?  Kuenen  insists  that  it  was  wrong  for  them  to 
do  so.  The  objection,  however  perplexing  at  first,  loses 
its  force  at  once  when  brought  into  the  court  of  gen- 
eral literature.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
quoted  from  the  Septuagint  because  it  was  the  only 
written  version  of  their  time.  The  Jews  in  general 
had  long  ceased,  not  merely  to  speak  and  write,  but  also 
to  read  Hebrew  ;  even  to  the  majority  of  those  who 
lived  in  Palestine  it  was  a  dead  language ;  and  it  was 
necessary  for  them  to  "search  the  Scriptures,"  if  at  all, 
in  some  translation  with  which  they  were  acquainted. 
The  learned  Jews  read  Hebrew ;  but  that  they  had  lost 
all  minute  and  critical  knowledge  of  it  is  evident  from 
the  puerile  interpretations  of  the  rabbis  and  from  the 
numerous  errors  of  the  Septuagint  version,  completed 
two  centuries  before  the  apostolic  age.  At  the  same 
time,  this  Septuagint  version,  being  the  sole  version 
which  they  possessed  in  writing,  was  a  work  of  the  very 
first  importance.  It  was  necessary  for  the  apostles  to 
appeal  to  it,  since  it  contained  the  only  documentary 
evidence  to  which  the  great  mass  of  their  leaders  could 
turn  to  verify  the  Christian  argument  from  history  and 
type  and  prophecy. 

The  world  of  the  apostolic  age,  even  the  Jewish 
world,  stood  much  farther  from  the  Hebrew  old  Testa- 
ment than  our  modern  world  does,  with  its  untiring 
microscopic  criticism  and  its  wealth  of  commentaries 


THE   SEPTUAGINT   VERSION  19 

distributed  to  every  Christian  home  and  bringing  the 
results  of  the  ripest  learning  to  every  child  in  the 
Sunday-school  and  at  its  mother's  knee.  The  world  of 
the  apostolic  age  was  much  more  dependent  upon  the 
Septuagint,  its  one  written  version,  and  upon  such  oral 
versions  as  the  rabbis  might  make  in  the  synagogues, 
than  we  are  upon  our  modern  versions. 

The  New  Testament  was  not  written  for  a  limited 
number  of  learned  men  ;  but  for  the  great  world,  and 
for  the  churches  gathered  out  of  it,  and  thus  for  people 
of  ordinary  intelligence.  In  quoting  from  the  Septua- 
gint, its  writers  did  as  all  religious  writers  of  all  ages 
have  done,  in  so  far  as  they  have  addressed  the  people 
not  technically  learned  ;  they  quoted  from  the  version 
which  their  readers  knew.  The  writer  in  English,  what- 
ever his  denomination,  quotes  by  preference  from  the 
ordinary  English  version,  or  from  the  Revised,  though 
neither  is  free  from  errors.  The  writer  in  German, 
however  widely  he  may  differ  from  the  creed  of  Luther, 
quotes  from  the  version  of  Luther,  unless  there  is  some 
special  reason  for  an  appeal  to  another.  The  writer  in 
Burmese,  even  if  an  Episcopalian,  quotes  from  the 
Burman  version,  the  work  of  a  Baptist  missionary. 
This  is  the  common  law  of  religious  literature. 

Thus  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  dealt  with 
the  inaccuracies  of  the  common  version  of  their  time 
much  as  the  conscientious  theologian  of  to-day  deals 
with  those  of  the  versions  most  accessible  to  the  peo- 
ple. The  theologian,  in  quoting  from  either  of  the  well- 
known  English  versions,  does  not  reject  any  text  which 
he  wishes  to  use  because  its  language  seems  to  him 
less  exact  than  some  other  form  of  words,  if  the  divine 


20  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

thought  is  preserved  in  its  integrity.  Nay  further, 
when  he  finds  in  it  some  slight  inaccuracy  of  meaning, 
if  this  has  nothing  to  do  with  his  argument,  he  takes 
the  passage  as  it  is,  and  refrains  from  adverse  comment, 
lest  he  enfeeble  his  production  by  endless  and  unprof- 
itable digressions.  If,  however,  the  inaccuracy  stands 
in  his  way,  he  removes  it,  and  brings  out  the  full  light 
of  the  truth  which  it  obscured  or  concealed  ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  if  it  is  of  a  nature  to  favor  his  cause 
unduly,  he  refuses  to  avail  himself  of  it,  "not  handling 
the  word  of  God  deceitfully."  To  quote  from  a  version 
unknown  to  his  readers  and  not  trusted  by  them,  or  to 
overload  his  pages  with  perpetual  teasing  emendations 
of  the  version  which  he  employs,  would  be  foolish,  as 
it  would  debar  him  from  the  world  and  render  his  work 
futile.  So  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  in  citing 
from  the  Greek,  seldom  corrected  the  version  to  which 
they  appealed,  unless  to  do  so  was  necessary  to  their 
course  of  thought  ;  and  they  refrained  from  using  in- 
accuracies of  which  they  might  easily  have  taken  ad- 
vantage. 

A  good  instance  of  the  passing  over  of  a  verbal  in- 
accuracy which  might  have  been  pressed  into  the  ser- 
vice of  the  writer  is  found  in  Ileb.   10  :  5-9  : 

When  he  comcth  into  the  world,  he  saith, 

Sacrifice  and  offering  thou  wouldest  not, 

But  a  body  didst  thou  prepare  for  me  ; 

In   whole    burnt    offerings    and    sacrifices  for  sin  thou 

hadst  no  pleasure  : 
Then  said  I,   Lo,  I  am  come 
(In  the  roll  of  the  book  it  is  written  of  me) 
To  do  thy  will,  0  God. 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  21 

Saying  above,  Sacrifices  and  offerings  and  whole  burnt  offerings 
and  sacrifices  for  sin  thou  wouldest  not,  neither  hadst  pleasure 
therein  (the  which  are  offered  according  to  the  law),  then  hath 
he  said,  Lo,  I  am  come  to  do  thy  will.  He  taketh  away  the  first, 
that  he  may  establish  the  second. 

The  quotation  is  from  Ps.  40  :  6-S.  It  has  primary 
reference  to  the  psalmist  himself.  Its  secondary  refer- 
ence to  Christ  will  be  shown  in  the  ninth  chapter  of 
this  book,  and  need  not  detain  us  here.  That  which  I 
wish  especially  to  observe  is  the  phrase  of  the  Hebrew 
text  :  "Mine  ears  hast  thou  opened,"  and  the  departure 
from  it  of  the  Septuagint,  which  reads  :  "A  body  didst 
thou  prepare  for  me."  The  author  of  the  epistle 
quotes  from  the  Septuagint,  but  he  makes  no  use  of 
this  phrase  in  his  argument.  Yet  it  is  one  that  might 
have  been  employed  with  force.  The  writer  might 
have  exhibited  the  psalmist  as  predicting  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  body  of  Christ  in  the  incarnation  with  ex- 
press reference  to  its  sacrifice  as  a  substitute  for  the 
sacrifices  which  God  "would  not."  Indeed,  many  have 
leaped  to  the  conclusion  that  he  really  bases  his  rea- 
soning upon  it,  so  appropriate  is  it  to  his  purpose. 
Thus  Toy *  says :  "  This  argument  might  have  been 
made  without  the  quotation,  but  a  desirable  support 
from  the  Old  Testament  seemed  to  the  author  to  be 
presented  in  the  Septuagint  phrase  'a  body  thou  hast 
prepared  me.'  " 

The  impression,  however,  that  the  author  of  the 
epistle  has  rested  his  argument  upon  the  phrase  of 
the  Septuagint  is  erroneous.  It  is  true  that  a  phrase 
at    the   first  glance  distantly  resembling  that  of    the 

1 "  The  Quotations  in  the  New  Testament." 


22  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW  TESTAMENT 

Septuagint  occurs  a  little  farther  along  in  the  epistle : 
"  By  which  will  we  have  been  sanctified  through  the 
offering  of  the  body  of  Christ  once  for  all."  But  that 
this  is  quite  independent  of  the  phrase  quoted  from  the 
Septuagint  is  evident  from  the  following  considera- 
tions : 

i.  The  two  phrases  are  not  the  same  in  any  particu- 
lar except  that  both  contain  the  word  "  body."  The 
Septuagint  has  :  "  A  body  didst  thou  prepare  for  me  "  ; 
and  the  epistle  :  "  By  which  will  we  have  been  sancti- 
fied through  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ  once 
for  all."     Could  any  two  statements  be  more  diverse? 

2.  Not  only  are  they  different  in  form,  but  they  are 
thoroughly  different  in  meaning.  The  phrase  of  the 
Septuagint,  were  it  genuine,  would  refer  to  the  incar- 
nation ;  but  that  of  the  epistle  refers  solely  to  the 
crucifixion.  One  looks  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the 
other  to  his  death.  It  is  true  that  this  distance  might 
have  been  bridged  over  bv  the  writer  of  the  epistle ; 
he  might  have  said  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  pre- 
pared with  reference  to  its  crucifixion,  and  thus  have 
brought  the  expression  into  his  argument.  He  has 
pointedly  failed  to  do  this,  which  shows  that  he  did  not 
regard  the  phrase  in  question  as  belonging  in  any  way 
to  his  course  of  reasoning. 

3.  We  may  not  only  prove  thus  that  the  phrase  of 
the  epistle  cannot  have  come  from  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion of  the  psalm,  being  thoroughly  different  from  it 
both  in  form  and  meaning,  hut  we  may  go  farther  and 
show  whence  it  did  come.  Its  source  is  not  far  to 
seek.  It  came  from  Christian  history;  and  nothing  was 
more   natural    to  a  Christian  writer  of  the  apostolic  age 


THE   SEPTUAGINT   VERSION  23 

than  to  speak  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord  as  "the 
offering  of  the  body  of  Christ." 

4.  The  argument  which  the  writer  derives  from  the 
psalm  closes  before  the  introduction  of  the  phrase  in 
question.  The  argument  is  that  the  Mosaic  sacrifices 
have  been  abolished  by  the  self-sacrifice  of  Christ,  in 
obeying  the  will  of  God  and  coming  into  the  world  to 
die.  The  only  phrases  of  the  psaim  which  the  writer 
uses  in  drawing  his  conclusion  are  these  :  "  Sacrifices 
and  offerings  thou  wouldest  not,"  and,  "  Lo,  I  am  come 
to  do  thy  will."  The  psalmist,  says  the  writer,  "  taketh 
away  the  first,  that  he  may  establish  the  second." 
Here  his  argument  ends. 

5.  When  the  writer  comes  to  the  phrase  in  question 
he  has  passed  from  his  direct  argument  from  the  psalm, 
to  speak,  not  of  the  incarnation  of  Christ,  but  of  our 
sanctification  through  his  death.  Christ  says,  "  when 
he  cometh  into  the  world,"  "  Lo,  I  am  come  to  do  thy 
will."  But  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  he  should  die 
for  us,  and  hence  "  by  that  will  we  have  been  sanctified 
through  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ  once  for  all." 

If  we  admit,  for  a  moment,  what  I  think  incorrect, 
that  in  the  phrase,  "  the  offering  of  the  body  of  Christ," 
we  are  to  find  a  direct  reference  to  the  phrase,  "  a  body 
didst  thou  prepare  for  me,"  it  will  be  evident,  even  then, 
that  the  writer  lays  no  stress  upon  the  expression  of 
the  psalm,  but  gives  emphasis  only  to  the  obedience  of 
Christ,  and  regards  that  as  the  real  substitute  for  the 
sacrifices  of  the  old  dispensation.  This  is  granted  by 
so  free   a  critic  as  De  Wette, '  who  says  :  "  Had  the 

1  Quoted  by  Tholuck,  "  Kommentar,"   at  Heb.  10  :   10. 


24  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

Septuagint  translated,  '  ears  hast  thou  prepared  me,' 
the  entire  sense  "  found  in  the  passage  by  the  New  Tes- 
tament writer  "  would  have  remained,"  and  in  the  words 
of  the  psalmist  "  the  idea  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  di- 
vine will  as  the  true  atonement  would  always  have  lain 
preserved." 

It  should  be  added  that  the  underlying  sense  of  the 
phrase  in  the  Septuagint  is  the  same  with  that  of  the 
Hebrew  phrase,  though  the  language  is  so  different. 
The  Hebrew  says  :  "  Mine  ears  hast  thou  opened,"  that 
is,  to  hear  the  divine  voice  in  an  obedient  spirit.  The 
Septuagint  says  :  "A  body  didst  thou  prepare  for  me," 
that  is,  as  an  organ  by  means  of  which  I  may  obey  the 
divine  voice.  Thus  in  both  cases  the  obedience  of 
Christ  unto  death  is  presented  to  the  reader  as  the  sub- 
stitute for  the  sacrifices  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation. 
This  is  maintained  by  all  critics,  of  all  schools.  The 
writer  of  the  epistle,  therefore,  might  have  employed 
the  phrase  of  the  Septuagint  with  some  emphasis  ;  and 
his  refusal  to  do  so  is  an  interesting  evidence  of  his 
scrupulous  care  to  keep  within  the  bounds  of  propriety 
in  his  use  of  the  Old  Testament. 

In  a  number  of  instances,  however,  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament  show  their  knowledge  of  the  He- 
brew text,  and  quote  from  it,  if  there  is  special  occasion 
to  do  so. 

In  the  Gospel  by  Matthew  the  Hebrew  is  used,  in- 
stead of  the  Septuagint,  perhaps  more  frequently  than 
elsewhere.  WestCOtt,1  following  Bleek,  calls  attention 
to   the   fact   that    when    Matthew   himself    speaks    and 

'"  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,"  p.  229,  note. 


THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  25 

refers  to  the  fulfillment  of  prophecies,  he  leans  to  the 
Hebrew  original  ;  while,  when  he  represents  others  as 
speaking  and  quoting,  he  leans  to  the  Septuagint  ver- 
sion. Westcott  infers  from  this  that  the  apostle  com- 
posed his  Gospel  of  two  kinds  of  material  :  first,  of  his 
own  peculiar  reminiscences  and  reflections,  in  which  he 
quotes  from  the  Hebrew,  because  familiar  with  it  ;  and 
secondly,  of  an  oral  statement  of  the  life  of  Christ 
shaped  by  the  earliest  teachers  of  Christianity  and 
taught  to  the  Gentiles  and  the  Greek-speaking  Jews,  in 
which  the  Septuagint  was  used,  because  it  was  the  only 
Bible  which  the  hearers  possessed  and  to  which  they 
could  appeal.  This  oral  Gospel,  according  to  the 
theory,  the  apostle,  when  he  committed  it  to  writing, 
respected  too  much  to  change.  The  speculation  is 
interesting. 

I  give  here  a  few  illustrative  instances  of  recurrence 
to  the  Hebrew  text  for  reasons  which  we  can  weigh 
and  appreciate  : 

At  Matt.  2:15,  Hosea  1 1  :  1  is  quoted  as  a  prophecy 
of  Christ  :  "  Out  of  Egypt  did  I  call  my  son."  The 
quotation  follows  the  Hebrew  exactly.  The  Septua- 
gint says  :  "  Out  of  Egypt  I  called  back  his  children  "  ; 
and  the  word  "children,"  being  plural,  could  not  be  ap- 
plied to  Christ  as  an  individual  ;  and  thus  the  typical 
character  of  the  verse  is  lost. 

At  Matt.  8:17,  the  evangelist  quotes  from  Isa.  53  : 
4  :  "  Himself  took  our  infirmities  and  bare  our  dis- 
eases." The  Septuagint  has  :  "  He  bears  our  sins  and 
suffers  for  us,"  which  would  seem  to  refer  especially  to 
the  crucifixion.  Translated  literally,  as  in  the  margin  of 
the  Revised  version,  the  Hebrew  has  :  "  He  hath  borne 
c 


26  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

our  sicknesses  and  carried  our  sorrows."  We  see  at 
once  why  the  New  Testament  writer  abandons  the 
Septuagint  and  recurs  to  the  Hebrew  :  he  is  speaking 
of  miracles  of  healing,  to  which  the  Hebrew  words 
directly  refer,  while  the  Septuagint  version  does  not 
preserve  the  reference  of  the  prophecy  to  sickness. 

At  Matt.  12  :  18-21   we  find  a  quotation  from  Isa. 
42  :  1-4,  beginning  with  the  lines  : 

Behold,  my  servant  whom  I  have  chosen  ; 
My  beloved  in  whom  my  soul  is  well  pleased. 

This  is  from  one  of  the  prophecies  which  refer  to  Christ 
directly.  But  the  Septuagint  gives  an  erroneous  inter- 
pretation of  the  passage,  rather  than  a  translation,  and 
wholly  obscures  the  reference  to  Christ,  and  thus  ren- 
ders the  passage  unsuitable  for  the  purpose  of  the  New 
Testament  writer  : 

Jacob  is  my  servant  ;   I  will  lay  hold  on  him  : 
Israel  is  my  chosen  ;  my  soul  has  accepted  him. 

At  Luke  23  :  46  our  Lord,  when  about  to  die,  quotes 
a  line  of  Ps.  31:5: 

Into  thy  hands  I  commend  my  spirit. 

The  Septuagint  has  the  future  tense,  "  I  will  com- 
mit," which  is  not  quite  appropriate,  since  our  Lord 
utters  the  words,  not  with  reference  to  what  he  intends 
to  do  at  some  time  more  or  less  distant,  but  with  refer- 
ence to  his  spiritual  act  at  the  moment  of  speaking. 
I  [ence  Luke  here  abandons  the  Septuagint  for  the  He- 
brew form  ot  the  sentence. 


THE   SEPTUAGINT   VERSION  27 

The  quotation  of  Zech.  12  :  10  at  John  19  :  37  is 
another  example.  The  evangelist  is  recording  the 
piercing  of  the  side  of  Jesus  by  the  Roman  soldier,  and 
says  :  "  Another  scripture  saith,  They  shall  look  on 
him  whom  they  pierced."  This  is  in  every  way  appro- 
priate to  the  event.  The  Septuagint  is  exchanged 
for  the  Hebrew,  because  it  contains  no  reference  to 
the  piercing:  "They  shall  look  to  me  because  they 
mocked." 

At  Rom.  9  :  17  the  Apostle  Paul  speaks  of  the 
divine  sovereignty,  and  to  prove  this  doctrine  quotes 
the  words  uttered  by  Jehovah  to  Pharaoh  and  recorded 
at  Exod.  9  :  16:  "  For  this  very  purpose  did  I  raise 
thee  up,  that  I  might  shew  in  thee  my  power,  and  that 
my  name  might  be  published  abroad  in  all  the  earth." 
The  apostle  follows  the  Septuagint  in  a  general  w;iy. 
But  the  Septuagint  is  more  impersonal  :  "  For  this  pur- 
pose hast  thou  been  preserved,"  is  a  form  of  language 
which  does  not  assert  clearly  the  divine  agency,  and  the 
apostle  therefore  abandons  it  for  that  of  the  Hebrew, 
which  is  personal.  Moreover,  the  statement  that  God 
had  "preserved"  Pharaoh  to  show  forth  his  power  by 
means  of  him,  would  not  illustrate  his  supreme  sover- 
eignty quite  so  well  as  the  statement  that  God  had 
"  raised  him  up  "  for  this  very  purpose.  There  are  thus 
two  reasons  for  the  preference  shown  by  the  apostle  for 
the  Hebrew  in  this  part  of  his  quotation. 

After  a  careful  study  of  the  New  Testament  in  its 
relation  to  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old,  I  can 
find  no  fault  with  these  words  of  Tholuck  : ' 

1  "Kommentar  zum  Briefe  an  die  Hebiaer,"  Beilage  I.,  p.  37. 


28  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that,  although  all  the  authors  of  the 
New  Testament  seem  to  have  used  the  Septuagint  translation, 
yet  where  that  translation — at  least  as  it  lies  before  us1 — wholly 
wanders  away  from  the  sense  of  the  original,  or  becomes 
entirely  destitute  of  meaning,  they  either  resort  to  another  trans- 
lation, or  themselves  translate  the  text  independently.  We  do 
not  recall  a  single  place,  either  in  the  Gospels  or  in  the  epistles 
of  Paul,  where  a  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  to  its  essential 
contents,  has  been  disguised  by  the  use  of  the  Septuagint 
version. 

1  Referring  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  text  of  the  Septuagint  version. 


II 

QUOTATIONS    FROM    MEMORY 

HTHE  quotations  in  modern  literature  are  usually, 
1  though  not  uniformly,  fairly  exact  in  language,  as 
well  as  in  thought.  But  the  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament seem  often  to  quote  from  memory,  and,  while 
scrupulous  to  give  the  sense  of  the  passage  in  so  far 
as  it  affects  their  argument,  they  are  not  careful  of  the 
precise  language.  They  sometimes  depart  from  the 
subsidiary  shades  of  thought  in  subordinate  phrases, 
if  these  have  nothing  to  do  with  their  teaching.  They 
sometimes  exercise  even  greater  freedom  if  the  quota- 
tion is  used  merely  for  literary  allusion  or  decoration. 

It  should  be  observed,  therefore,  that  verbal  exact- 
ness in  quoting  is  a  habit  only  recently  introduced  in 
literature.  It  was  impossible,  in  effect,  before  the  in- 
vention of  printing  made  books  abundant  and  the  con- 
struction of  indexes  and  concordances  rendered  it  easy 
to  find  any  passage  at  will.  It  has  prevailed  especially 
since  the  invention  of  quotation  marks,  which  seem  to 
call  attention  to  the  very  words,  and  even  letters,  and 
to  certify  their  correctness.  Yet  even  to-day  it  is  far 
from  universal  ;  and  in  the  age  of  the  apostles  centu- 
ries were  to  elapse  before  it  should  be  thought  of  by 
any  one.  Sanday  *  has  well  said  :  "The  ancient  writer 
had  not  a  small  compact  reference  Bible  at  his  side, 

1  "  The  Gospels  in  the  Second  Century,' '  p.  29. 

29 


30  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

but,  when  he  wished  to  verify  a  reference,  would  have 
to  take  an  unwieldy  roll  out  of  its  case,  and  then  would 
not  find  it  divided  into  chapter  and  verse  like  our  mod- 
ern books,  but  would  have  only  the  columns,  and  those 
perhaps  not  numbered,  to  guide  him."  It  should  be 
added  that  the  Apostle  Paul,  at  least,  and  perhaps 
others  of  the  authors  of  the  New  Testament,  often 
wrote  during  a  journey,  or  in  prison,  where  books  were 
not  easily  procured. 

The  writers  of  the  Old  Testament,  whose  inspired 
example  would  possess  for  the  writers  of  the  New  the 
authority  of  a  divine  law,  quoted  with  reference  to  the 
sense,  and  not  the  exact  language.  Thus,  the  Ten 
Commandments,  as  given  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of 
Exodus,  are  declared  to  be  a  reproduction  of  that  which 
God  proclaimed  on  Sinai :  "  God  spake  all  these  words." 
The  same  claim  is  made  for  the  Ten  Commandments 
as  given  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Deuteronomy  :  "  These 
words '  Jehovah  spake  unto  all  your  assembly,  in  the 

1  It  should  be  stated  that  "^7.  the  Hebrew  term  here  rendered  "  word," 
usually  refers  to  the  larger  outlines  of  expression,  and  also  to  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed, rather  than  to  each  individual  word.  It  is  like  the  Greek  Adyo?  in 
this  respect.  We  have  no  word  in  English  exactly  corresponding  to  it 
in  meaning;  but  perhaps  un  ERANCE  is  as  nearly  like  it  as  any  at  our  ser- 
vice. The  Ten  Commandments  are  always  called  the  "ten  words"  in 
the  Old  Testamenl  (Exod.  34  :  28 ;  Deut.  4  :  13;  10  :  4) ;  and  never  the 
Ten  Commandments;  they  are  thus  named  because  they  an-  the  ten  utter- 
ances of  God's  will.  Those  passages  which  have  been  held  by  some  theo- 
logians to  teach  the  doctrine  <>f  verbal  inspiration,  like  1  Cor  -  :  13,  can- 
not  justly  be  1  ited  in  its  favor,  because  the  original  terms  in  thess  passages 
which  we  translate  "word"  ami  "  words"  have  ihis  larger  meaning,  and 
do  not  refer  to  the  exact  phraseology.  So  when  it  i>  said,  as  in  the  place 
immediately  before  us,  "these  words  Jehovah  spake,  and  added  no  more," 
the  reference  is  general,  and  n>>i  t,,  the  minute  details  of  the  language  era- 
We  might  render  the  sentence :  "  fhese  things  Jehovah  spake." 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  3 1 

mount,  out  of  the  midst  of  the  fire,  of  the  cloud,  and 
of  the  thick  darkness,  with  a  great  voice  :  and  he  added 
no  more."  The  claim  is  well  founded  in  both  cases ; 
for,  though  these  two  editions  of  the  law  differ  at  cer- 
tain points  very  widely  in  language,  the  underlying 
sense  is  the  same.  This  may  be  called  the  uniform 
rule  of  quotation  in  the  Old  Testament  :  compare  2 
Sam.  23  :  17  and  1  Chron.  11  :  19;  2  Sam.  5  :  19,  20 
and  1  Chron.  14:9-11;   1  Kings  9  :  3-9  and  2  Chron. 

7   :    12—22. 

If  we  turn  to  the  apocryphal  writings  associated 
with  the  Old  Testament  we  shall  observe  the  same 
liberty  in  the  citations  from  the  canonical  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  There  is  more  quoting  in  Baruch  than  in 
any  other  of  these  productions  ;  and  here,  as  elsewhere, 
it  is  usually  so  free  that  perhaps  it  should  be  called  an 
echo,  rather  than  a  reproduction,  of  the  sacred  authors. 
The  book,  Dr.  Bissell  '  says,  "  is  substantially  made  up 
of  reminiscences  more  or  less  clear,  or  quotations  more 
or  less  direct,  from  the  various  books  of  the  canonical 
Scriptures,  especially  Jeremiah  and  Daniel,  Nehemiah, 
Isaiah,  and  Deuteronomy.  Compare  Baruch  1  :  3-14 
with  Jer.  26  :  32  ;  Baruch  1  :  15-2  :  29  with  Dan.  9  : 
7-19;  Baruch  2  :  21  with  Jer.  27  :  11,  12."  The 
reader  can  judge,  by  these  instances,  the  freedom  with 
which  the  writer  of  the  book  quotes,  and  of  which  all 
the  writers  of  the  Apocrypha  avail  themselves  in  their 
use  of  the  Old  Testament. 

No  one  can   represent   better  than  Plato  the  most 

1  "  The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament,' '  Vol.  XV.  of  the  Lange 
series.  I  assume,  with  the  support  of  the  great  majority  of  critics,  that 
Baruch  was  written  before  our  era. 


32  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 


careful  literary  habits  of  the  classical  Greek  writers. 
His  works  are  adorned  with  many  quotations  from  the 
poets,  and  specially  from  Homer ;  but,  though  usually 
exact,  he  is  often  not  so  ;  and  he  is  much  more  careful 
of  the  rhythm  of  the  original  than  of  the  words.  The 
following  instances  will  be  sufficient  to  illustrate  his 
freedom  : 

i.  In  the  "Ion,"  section  538,  he  reproduces  three 
lines  of  the  "  Iliad,"  XXIV.,  80,  but  substitutes  three 
words  of  his  own  for  as  many  of  the  text,  an  average 
of  one  for  each  line.1 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

'II  ds    fioXuftdcuvj)    r/.eXr)  i<; 

ft'joobv  opoufl^ 
rjzz  xar    aYpa'jXoto  ftobz  x£- 

i/r/zza:  (hfa^z^acu  iz  lyO'jai 
A/jo  a  (fioouaa. 


THE    QUOTATION*. 

'  H   ok   fioAuftdaivfl  ixilrj   ic 

ftuaabv  ixavev, 
7}  ~£  xaz'  dypauXoeo  t3ub^  xi- 

pa%  iuu£jmu7a 
loyizo.'.  d)fxrj<nfj(Tt  fust*  iydu- 

01  vrjpa  ipepouaa. 


2.  In  the  "Ion,"  section  537,  he  quotes  from  the 
"Iliad,"  beginning  at  XXIII.,  335,  the  direction  of 
Nestor  to  Antilochus  how  to  drive  in  the  chariot  race, 
displacing  two  words  of  Homer  by  two  of  his  own. 

THE    ORIGINAL. 

i'jzb:  dk  xhvdtjVau  iiiz/J/.Tto 


ivi  o 'itf  o(i>, 
Jijl  It:    dpcarepd  xotiv  drdp 

rdv  deElbv  tititov 
xiuffCU  bflOxXfjOOZ,  £?-T'/r  z£  (>'. 

fjvia  yioct'.v. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

KkvOrtvat  ds.  c^L  tat  abzbz 

ii'i^sn-zto  iut  die  010 
Jtx    ili  uji'.azioa    TOttV    dzay 

rbu  di^cb-j  7--ov 
xiuffou  bpioxkjaac,  ei£ai  ze  ol 

rjvca  ytoaiv. 


'  Paley's  Iliad,  XXlV.,  80,  note. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY 


33 


'£y  vuaarj  os  roc  Jtttto^  dpca- 
t£(joz  iy%pcp(p6rjrto, 

diC  du  zoc  rtkrjtivq  ye  oodaaz- 
zac  dxpov  Ixiadac 

X'jxAoo  Tioir^zolo'  AcOoo  o'  d/J- 
aaQat  Inaupziv. 


1 Ev  uuaarj  os  zoc  ctttto^  dpca- 

TEpOZ  iyXfH/JHfdlJTCO, 

d)~  p/j  zoc  TrXypvin  ys  dodoaz- 

zac  dxpov  ixiadac 
xuxXou  Ttocrjzolo-  Xidoo  o'  d/J- 

aaOac  zTtaupzlv. 


3.  In  the  "Ion,"  section  539,  he  quotes  from  the 
"Odyssey,"  XX.,  351,  the  address  of  Melampus  to  the 
suitors,  with  three  substitutions  of  words  and  the 
omission  of  a  whole  line. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

VA  dzcXo'c,  zc  xaxbv  rods  nda- 

yszz ;  vuxzc  pkv  upscov 
scXuazac  xzyalai  re  izpoacozd 

re  vspOz  zz  youva. 
Ocpcoyy    ok  osorjz,  ozodxpuv- 

zac  os  Tiapetar 
alpazc    o     ippddazac    zolyoc 

xalai  zz  pzobopar 
zlocoXuov  ok  ttXJov  Ttpodupov, 

TzXziq  ok  xac  auXr), 
Izpsviov  yEpzj36aoz   u~b  £0- 

<pov  -fjeXioz  ok 
oupavo7)   isa-6X(oXe,  xaxh   o 

i~cdsdpopzv  dyXu^. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Jacpovcoc,  zc  xaxbu  rode  -d.a- 
%zzs  ;   vuxzc  pkv  upstov 

zcX.uazac  xeyaXac  zz  itpbacoTid 
rs  vspdz  zz  yu7a, 

.pzcar 


zcocoXiov  zz  tcXJov  xpodupov, 

ttX.zcvj  ok  xac  auXij 
izpsvcov  " Epzftoooz  u~b   £0- 

(fow  /jiXcoz  de 
oupavou   i^aTtoXwXs,  xaxrj  o' 

irtcosdpopzv  dyXu^. 


4.  In  the  "Symposium,"  section  178,  he  quotes  a 
brief  passage  from  Hesiod's  "  Theogony,"  at  line  116, 
omitting  two  entire  lines,  and  drawing  together  the 
words  preceding  and  following  them. 


34 


QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Abvdp  iicetra 
yaT     euyjazsovuz,     Ttdvrwv 

edoc,  datpaXkz  ousij 
jy<5°  *EpO£. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Abzdp  i~zcza 
r</.?      Z\)[)'J0ZZ(>VUC,      itdvzoiv 

'dooz  da<paXe<;  acel 
[aOavdzcov,   ui    i^oua:  xdpy 

pccposvzoz.  '  OXopitouA 
Tdptapd  z  jjepoevra  n'J%d> 

ypovbz.  eupuodeiys, 
v.o  v Enoc. 


5.  In  the  "  Laws,"  book  IV.,  section  706,  he  quotes 
at  length  from  the  "  Iliad,"  XIV.,  96,  the  rebuke  with 
which  Ulysses  answered  the  advice  of  Agamemnon  to 
launch  the  ships  and  abandon  the  camp,  but  substitutes 
three  words  of  his  own  for  as  many  of  the  poet. 


THE    ORIGINAL, 
fa  r\         '1  1  '  ' 

11-  xsXeae,  rcoAefjLoeo  aovsavao- 
roc  xai  duryz, 

vqaz  ivaazliu)')z  ahw   z);xk- 
fxsv,  oifii'  izc  fxaXXov 

TpoMJi  ukv  z'jxzd  -fiv/jZu:, 
intxpaxeouoi  nep  i /'-/,', 

fjfjuv  o    a;-')-  oXedpoQ  i~if>- 
f'i~/r      Ob  yap  Wyu/ju 

fffljffOUfftU  n6Xe/tOU,  Vfj<aV  d/jw 

kXxofievdcov, 
dXX  ditoizaKTaviouotv,  ipanj- 

ffottfft  os  ydpuij^. 
*Evda  /.t  n~rt  ftouXr  drjX^asTat, 


THE    QUOTATION. 

J  (>:  xzlzat  -oXituno  auvzozab- 

roz.  xai  outtjz 
vrjaz  iuaai'/jLO'jz  d/,ao  zXxztv, 

0(pf?  izc  fidXXov 
Tpioffi  fikv  euxrd  y&vrjTcu 

ieXdofiiuoeai  nep  ipnryz, 
tj;u<j  o  acz'j:    oXedpoc  imp- 

Pkitrf  ob  yap  Wyu.'.oi 
ffYijaouaiv  TtoXipou  V/jWb  dhw 

kXxojievdcov, 
dXX  dnoizaizxavkovaiv,  ipanj- 

ffouffi  dz  '/<>,<>,"' :■ 
"EvOa  y.i  art  (3ouXrt  dyXrjaeratt 

oV  dyopeueee;. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY 


35 


6.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  II.,  section  363,  he 
quotes  from  the  "Odyssey,"  XIX.,  109,  but  omits  en- 
tirely the  second  line  of  the  passage. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

y  H  ftaotXTjOz  dpupovo^,  oars. 
Oeoudrjz 

dvopdatv  iv  tzoXaqcgc  xai  i<p- 

dcpocacv  dvdaacov, 
sbocxiaz  dvkyjtor  (pepr^at  ok 

ydia  peXaiva 
nupob^    xai    xpcddz,   ftpiO/jac 

ok  oivopsa  xapTiui, 
tixtsc    o'    iprtsoa    p/jAa,  6d- 

Aaaaa  ok  rzapkyst  i%0uz- 

7.  In  the  "  Republic,"  book  II.,  section  364,  he 
quotes  a  famous  passage  on  prayer,  from  the  "  Iliad," 
IX.,  497,  but  omits  the  whole  of  the  second  line  and 
reproduces  the  third  in  an  inaccurate  form. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

"//  ^aacl^oz,  dy.up.ovoz  oars 

dsouor^ 
suocxia^  avi^ac,    ifkp^at    ok 

yata  psXatva 
nopob^  xai  xpcfldz,  ftpidrtoc  ok 

oivopsa  xaoTtw, 
tcxtY]   o1    spjzsoa    pytla,    6d- 

Xa.aaa  ok  Tzapsy/j  iyOu^. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

I'rpsTTTui  os  zs  xai 

dsoi  abroc, 
rcbvrzsp    xai     psi^cov     dpsrrj 

rtpt)  rs  ftiq  zs. 
Kai  pkv  robq,  Qussaai  xai 

s'j-£to)jjZ  dyavfjffiv 
Xoififj     zs     xviarj     zs     napa- 

TfXOTTOJa    dvOpcoTZOc 
h.ooopsvoc,  OTS  xsv  zee 

UTZspftrjfl  xai  dpdprrj. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

-rpsTzroi  os  rs  xai 

dsoi  abroi, 
xai    rob$    pkv     doaiacac    xai 

sbycolax^  dyavalacv 
Xocfiy]    rs    xviaor]    rs     Tzapa- 

rpiozdJa  dvOpcorzoc 
Xcoobpsvoc,  ors  xsv  tig  orzsp- 

firfy  xai  dpdprrj. 


36 


QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 


8.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  II.,  section  379,  he 
quotes  two  lines  from  the  "Iliad,"  XXIV.,  527;  but 
gives  the  second  only  in  a  general  way,  so  that  it  is  at 
first  hardly  to  be  recognized. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

KaraxeiaTCU  iv  Jcb^  oudsc, 
dcooiov,    ola    dcdojffc,    y.axojv, 
stsooc  de  idiov. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Kaxaxuaxax  iv  Jcoz  oldee 
Kypwv  ipatXetoe,  b  ftku  iatf- 
)mv,  aurdp  b  deeXdiu. 


9.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  III.,  section  388,  he 
quotes  from  the  "  Iliad,"  XVI.,  433.  The  opening 
words  of  the  quotation,  "  Ae  ac,"  are  not  in  the  original. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 
W il  flOt  iychv,  OTS  flOt   -O.'tTZf^ 

oova,  (piXzaxov  dvoptov. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Ac  at  iyov,  uzs    not  Zapiaj- 
dbva  wiXvazov  dvoptov. 


10.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  III.,  section  388,  he 
quotes  from  the  "Iliad,"  XXII.,  168,  the  lamentation 
of  Jove  over  the  fall  of  Sarpedon,  but  changes  one 
word. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

%  II  tp'tXov  dvdpa  ocu>- 
xoptsvov  ~soc  Ti'.yoz, 
d(pdaXp.ocotv  bpaipiai'  ifibv  <T 
dXoipupeTou  rJTop. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

'  //  (piXov  dvdpa  deio- 
xofievov  --.ni  Sxrru 
d<pdaXfiotacv  bpidjuai,  ifibv  o 
bXotpvpezat  7^rop. 


11.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  I II..  section  390,  he 
quotes  from  the  "Odyssey,"  IX.,  8.  The  second  and 
third  words  of  the  quotation  are  not  in  the  original,  but 

two  others,  of    similar  meaning,  have  been  displaced  by 
them. 


QUOTATIONS    FROM    MEMORY 


37 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

IJapd  Sk  7t):f/dio  acrpdrrs^ai 
a'ltou  xal  xpeitov,  pidu  J1  ix 

xp'qvtjpos  d(fdcr<Tcou 
oivoyooz  <popirj<Jt  xac  iyyzift 

osridsaacv. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

IlapaTcXtiat  (hoc  rpd-s^a: 
aizou  xal  xpetdJv,  pidu    o   ix 

xpyjzrjpoz  dipuoaiov 
oivoyjioz,   fophjGc  xal  iyyzl^ 

ds7zde(TCFl. 


12.  In  the  "  Republic,"  book  III.,  section  408,  he 
quotes  from  the  "  Iliad,"  IV.,  218,  but  changes  for 
others  the  fourth  and  last  words  of  the  line. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Alp   ixpu^TJaaz,  irr   dp''  rJTTia 
(fdppaxa  ecuco^. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Alp   ixpu^rjaavz  im  r  fjTica 
(fdppax   ZTiaeaov. 


13.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  IV.,  section  424,  he 
quotes  from  the  "Odyssey,"  I.,  351,  but  discards  two 
words  for  others  of  his  own. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

\loioyv   pdXdov  kmxXei- 
00a  dvdpcoTZOt, 
yjrcQ     dxooovreaac     vzioxdxrj 
dpipiTzkhjXai. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

'Aoidirjv  pdXXov  i-jiappoveoua 

avdpcojtoi, 
:/j    tiz,    dzidovxiaai    vsoizdrifj 

dpcfcTziX^rac. 


14.  In  the  "Republic,"  book  V.,  section  469,  he 
quotes  from  the  "Works  and  Days"  of  Hesiod,  line 
121.  In  the  original  there  are  thirteen  words.  Plato 
omits  six  of  these,  and  replaces  them  with  four  others. 

THE    QUOTATION. 

01  pkv  daipovzz,  dyvol  i~i^do- 
viot  zs/Jdouacv, 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Tol  pkv  daipovi^  ecai   dib^ 

pejdXou  did.  ftouX-dz 
iadXol,    iiziydbvtot,     ipuXoxz^ 


'vYjTcou  o.vuoojtcojv. 


iadXoi,    dXsqixaxoc,     fuXMxe^ 
pepoTiajv  dvdpdmcov. 


38  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

i  5.  Usually  the  changes  which  Plato  makes  in  his 
quotations  do  not  affect  his  course  of  thought.  But 
there  is  at  least  one  remarkable  exception  to  this  rule. 
In  the  "  Laws,"  book  VI.,  section  77 7,  he  quotes  from 
the  "Odyssey,"  XVII.,  322,  to  show  that  slavery  cor- 
rupts the  enslaved.      Homer  says  : 

On  the  day  that  one  becomes  a  slave, 

The  Thunderer,  Jove,  takes  half  his  manliness  away. 

This  is  in  the  exact  direction  of  Plato's  argument.  But 
he  carelessly  diverts  it  from  its  proper  bearing  by  mak- 
ing it  read  : 

Jove  takes  half  his  understanding  away. 
He  introduces  also  several  other  verbal  chancres. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

"Hpuou  ydp  z  dperrfi  djroac- 

vuxax.  e'jo'jo-a  Zeb^ 
dvepoz,  eur  &v  /uu  xard  dou- 


THE    QUOTATION. 

" Hficao  ydp  re  voou  dna/jisipe- 

rac  eupuona  Zf'j^ 
dvdpdtu  ouc  tiv  8t  xard  806- 

hov  "/(fiap  eXfjffe. 


Aristotle  is  even  less  careful  of  verbal  accuracy.1 
Thus  in  his  "  Rhetoric,"  book  I.,  chapter  15,  section  1, 
he  borrows  from  the  "  Antigone  "  of  Sophocles.  "  The 
quotation,"  says  Welldon,2  "is  made  somewhat  loosely, 
as  though  the  passage  would  be  familiar  to  every  one." 
Cope3  says  that  Aristotle  "usually  misquotes"  Homel- 
and again  that  "his  fashion  is"  to  misquote  in  general. 

1  See,  foi  example,  Grant's  "  Aristotle,"  " Nicomachian  Ethics,"  III., 
8,  4,  note.     Aristotle  nol   seldom  attributes  his  quotations  to  the  wrong 

«  "The  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle,"  Welldon,  p.  101,  note  2, 

8  In  his  "  Rhetoric  of  Aristotle,"  Vol.  I.,  p,  207,  not.',  and  p,  276,  note. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  39 

The  latest  of  the  great  Greek  writers  with  whose 
productions  any  of  the  apostles  would  be  acquainted  is 
Plutarch,  who  was  born  a.  d.  40,  and  must  have  pub- 
lished many  of  his  works  before  the  end  of  the  first 
century,  when  it  is  supposed  the  "  beloved  disciple  " 
was  about  to  close  his  life.  Plutarch  quotes  in  the 
same  inexact  manner  with  others. 

Thus  in  his  treatise  on  the  "  Delay  of  the  Divine 
Justice,"  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  chapter,  he 
has  a  citation  from  the  "  Works  and  Days  "  of  Hesiod, 
which,  as  Hackett1  points  out  in  his  note  on  the 
passage,  is  "  apparently  from  memory,"  as  it  is  not 
literal. 

At  the  close  of  his  treatise  on  "  The  Love  of 
Wealth,"  he  quotes  a  short  line  from  the  "  Iliad," 
XXIII.,  259,  omitting  a  word. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Nrjcov  d'  ixcpsp    azOXa,  Xsfy- 

rd$  ts  TpcTToodz  re. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Nvjibv  o1  exfspe    Xiftqzdz   re 
zpiizod&z  re. 


In  his  treatise  on  "  The  Folly  of  Seeking  Many 
Friends,"  section  5,  he  quotes  a  line  from  the  "Iliad," 
V.,  902.  In  the  original  there  are  eight  words  ;  in  the 
quotation,  nine  ;  three  of  which,  however,  are  wrong. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

cJ2c  cT  or    07r6c  ydXa  X.eoxbu 

kTzziybfizvoz  (rousTzrjgev. 

I  cite,  as  an  instance  of  inexact  quotation  in  Greek 


THE    QUOTATION. 

ci?C  <?  or  onbz  y&Xa  Xs.uy.bv 
lybfupioozv  xac  ioqcrs. 


1  "  Delay  of  the  Deity  in  the   Punishment  of  the  Wicked,"   p.   13S, 
note  I. 


40  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

literature  later  than  the  apostles,  the  following  lines 
from  the  "Iliad,"  XX.,  127.  They  are  found  in  Lu- 
cian's  "  Philopatris." 

Whatever  web  the  Parcae  at  his  birth 

For  him  have  wove,  that  is  his  fate  on  earth. 

Tooke1  translates  the  lines  thus,  and  adds:  "The 
author  quotes  the  passage  from  memory,  with  his  own 
alterations." 

Cicero  may  be  taken  as  the  best  example  of  the  Latin 
writers,  and  though  often  verbally  exact,  he  is  not  uni- 
formly so. 

Thus  in  his  "  Letters  to  Atticus,"  IV.,  7,  he  quotes 
three  words  from  the  "  Odyssey,"  XXII.,  412,  but  mis- 
takes as  to  one  of  them. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

0b%  bo  if],  xza/xivoeatv. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

0\j'£  bairj  (fdciiivocacv. 


In  his  "  Letters  to  Atticus,"  I.,  16,  he  quotes  from 
the  "  Iliad."  XVI.,  1 12,  but  omits  three  words  from  the 
latter  half  of  the  first  line. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

"v  l.a-zzt  VUV  />.<>:,   MoUffOU 

'OkufiTtia  d(i')f/.az  iyouffcU) 

d~~(i>:    df;    TtOOJTOV    7tup 

ittrzeo-s. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

'EaTteve  vuu  pot  Minna:,  bz- 
-«)z   brt    -ixbzou   nop   ifi- 


In  his  "Letters  to  Atticus,"  II.,  11,  he  quotes  two 
lines  from  the  "Odyssey,"  IX.,  27,  inserting  a  word 
which  is  not  in  the  original. 

1   I  ooke's  "  Lucian,"  II.,  p.  723. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  4 1 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Tpy%eT,  aXX  dyad/] 

xoupozp6<poc  06  To:  iycoys 
f]Z  yodyG  duvapai 

yXuxspatrspov    aXXo    coicr- 

6ac. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Tprj%sT,  dXX'  dyady 

xooporpofo^  out:  dp  eycoys 
yjc    yaiqq,    duvapai    yXuxspd)- 

zepop  d),Xo  tosodac. 


In  his  "Republic,"  book  I.,  section  32,  he  quotes  a 
line  from  Ennius,  with  the  word  "  regni  "  in  the  second 
place.  In  the  "De  Officiis,"  book  1,  section  8,  he 
quotes  the  same  line  with  the  word  in  the  sixth  place. 

In  his  "Republic,"  book  I.,  section  41,  he  quotes 
three  lines  from  the  "  Annals  "  of  Ennius  ;  but  omits 
the  closing  word  of  the  first,  and  a  whole  line  between 
the  second  and  third.  See  "The  Republic  of  Cicero," 
by  G.  G.  Hardingham,  p.  1  12,  note  145. 

The  following,  from  Trollope's  "Cicero,"1  states 
very  well,  if  somewhat  strongly,  the  attitude  of  the 
Latin  writers  in  general  toward  Greek  literature,  and 
the  great  freedom  with  which  they  quoted  it  : 

The  Romans,  in  translating  from  the  Greek,  thinking  nothing 
of  literary  excellence,  felt  that  they  were  bringing  Greek  thought 
into  a  form  of  language  in  which  it  could  thus  be  made  useful. 
There  was  no  value  for  the  words,  but  only  for  the  thing  to  be 
found  in  them.  .  .  The  general  liberty  of  translation  has  been  so 
frequently  taken  by  the  Latin  poets — by  Virgil  and  Horace,  let 
us  say — that  they  have  been  regarded  by  some  as  no  more  than 
translators.  .  .  There  has  been  no  need  to  them  for  a  close 
translation.  They  have  found  the  idea,  and  their  object  has 
been  to  present  it  to  their  readers  in  the  best  possible  language. 

Similarly  Reid  says,  in  his  "  Academica  of  Cicero"  :2 
1  Vol.  II.,  P.  253.    *  Pp.  24,  51. 


42  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  philosophical  works  of  Cicero  were  merely  transcripts 
from  the  most  approved  Greek  writings  on  the  subjects  with  which 
they  deal.  The  arguments  in  favor  of  dogmatism  are  frequently 
stated  by  Cicero  to  be  wholly  taken  from  his  old  teacher,  Antio- 
chus  of  Ascalon.  That  Cicero  did  not  rely  on  his  own  recollec- 
tion of  Antiochus'  lectures,  but  transcribed  the  opinions  from  a 
book  or  books  by  the  master,  can  be  clearly  proved,  though  the 
fact  is  nowhere  stated.  .  .  His  writings  are  in  fact,  to  a  great 
extent,  translations,  though  free  translations,  from  the  Creek 
sources. 

It  would  be  easy  to  extend  these  evidences  from  the 
classics,  but  I  shall  close  with  three  instances  from 
Seneca,  who  was  a  contemporary  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

In  his  seventy-sixth  letter,  he  quotes  from  the 
"y£neid,"  VI.,  103,  with  a  mistake  of  one  word  for 
another. 

THE  ORIGINAL.  THE  QUOTATION. 

Non  ulla  laborum,  |  Non   ulla    laborum, 

O   virgo,    nova    mi    facies  O  virgo,  nova  mi  facies 

inopinave  surgit  :  inopinave  surgit  : 

Omnia  praecepi,  atque  ani-  Omnia  praecepi,  atque  ani- 

mo  mecum  ante  peregi.    |      mo  mccum  ipse  peregi. 

In  his  eighty-sixth  letter  he  quotes  a  line  from  the 
"Georgics,"  I.,  215,  but  adds  a  word,  and  also  substi- 
tutes one  word  for  another. 


THE  ORIGINAL. 

Vere  fabis  satio ,    turn    te 
quoque,  medica,  putres. 


THE  QUOTATION. 

Vere  fabis  satio  est  ;  tunc 
te  quoque,  medica,  putres. 


In  his  ninety-third  letter  he  quotes  ten  lines  from 

the  "  ( ieorgics,"  1 1 1.,  75,  omitting  two  lines  in  the  heart 
of   the  passage,  and   mistaking  a  word  in  the  third  line. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  43 

Philo  conformed  to  the  methods  of  quoting  which 
were  pursued  alike  by  the  Hebrew  and  the  classical 
writers,  being  familiar  with  the  productions  of  both. 
As  he  was  born  about  twenty  years  before  Christ,  his 
books  may  have  assisted  to  form  the  style  of  some  of 
the  authors  of  the  New  Testament ;  but  whether  this 
is  true  or  not,  they  illustrate  the  literary  customs  of  the 
first  century.  His  quotations  are  from  the  Septuagint, 
like  those  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists ;  but  he 
sometimes  shows  an  acquaintance  with  the  original 
Hebrew,  and  leans  toward  it.  Siegfried, l  who  has  ex- 
amined his  quotations  with  much  care,  has  assembled 
a  great  number  which  are  inexact.  I  give  but  a  single 
example  : 

In  his  treatise  on  "  Meeting  for  the  Sake  of  Receiv- 
ing Instruction,"  he  quotes  from  Lev.  18  :  1-5.  He 
begins  with  verses  1  and  2  and  a  part  of  verse  3  ;  then 
a  succeeding  part  of  verse  3  is  omitted  and  its  closing 
words  are  given  ;  then  follows  the  beginning  of  verse  4, 
then  the  omitted  portion  of  verse  3,  then  a  further  por- 
tion of  verse  4,  then  verse  5. 

The  early  Fathers  of  the  church  continued  the  cus- 
tom of  quoting  with  little  reference  to  verbal  exact- 
ness. Reuss'2  says  of  their  quotations:  "They  are 
mostly  only  small  fragments  taken  out  of  the  Scriptures 
and  applied  to  various  uses  in  the  later  theological 
works  ;  and  these  uses  did  not  always  require  strict 
adherence  to  the  original  words,  bat  permitted  quota- 
tion from  memory  simply,  which  is  oftener  the  case 

1  See  his  three  articles  in  Hilgenfeld's  "  Zeitschrift  fiir  wissenschaft- 
liche  Theologie,"  1S73. 

2  "  History  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,"  Vol.  II.,  section  394. 


44  QUOTATIONS  OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

the  farther  back  we  go."  Hence,  these  quotations  are 
of  little  use  in  establishing  the  text  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

Indeed,  the  custom  of  verbal  exactness  in  quoting  is 
not  yet  a  century  old.  In  the  time  of  Jeremy  Taylor  it 
was  still  unknown,  and  in  his  works  he  cites  the  Scrip- 
tures with  the  utmost  freedom.  Dr.  Ezra  Abbot  took 
pains  to  count  in  how  many  ways  this  author  quoted  a 
single  passage  of  the  New  Testament  (John  3  :  3-5). 
He  says:1  "  I  have  noted  nine  quotations  of  the  pas- 
sage by  Jeremy  Taylor.  All  of  these  differ  from  the 
common  English  version,  and  only  two  of  them  are 
alike."  He  shows  that  the  same  verses  are  quoted  in 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer"  without  regard  to  verbal 
precision. 

The  propriety  of  quoting  from  memory,  and  without 
regard  to  verbal  exactness,  is  admitted  by  Kuenen;3 
but  he  accuses  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  of 
sometimes  altering  not  only  the  words,  but  also  the  es- 
sential meaning  of  certain  passages.      He  says : 

It  is  not  to  those  numerous  divergences  which  have  little  or 
no  effect  upon  the  meaning  of  the  citation  that  I  wish  to  direct 
attention.  But  along  with  these,  others  of  a  less  innocent 
nature  occur.  The  alterations  introduced,  designedly  or  un- 
designedly,  by  the  New  Testament  writers,  are  often  very 
essential.  They  affect  the  thought  of  the  Old  Testament  writer, 
substitute  something  else  in  its  stead,  give  it  a  specific  direction, 
or  limit  it  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  made  to  apply  to  one  single 
-  1.  It  was  with  regard  to  such  modifications  that  1  thought 
myself  justified  in  asserting  that  they  cannoi  Inn  exert  an  influ- 

1  " The  Authorship  ol  tl>"  Fourth  Gospel,"  p.  39. 

1  Public  Baptism  of  Infants.     Baptism  of  Those  of  Riper  Years. 

'J  "  Prophets  and  Prophecy  in  Israel,"  p.  459. 


QUOTATIONS    FROM    MEMORY  45 

ence  on  the  judgment  formed  regarding  the  inferences  which  are 
deduced  (by  the  New  Testament  writer)  from  the  citation.  For 
him  who  adheres  strictly  to  the  original,  these  inferences  have 
no  force  as  proofs. 

This  is  a  grave  accusation,  for  it  affirms  that  the  au- 
thors of  the  New  Testament  have  altered,  perhaps 
"designedly,"  some  of  the  passages  of  the  Old  which 
they  quote,  so  as  to  transform  them  by  this  violent 
method  into  "proofs"  of  teachings  to  which,  in  their 
original  state,  they  bear  no  testimony.  Kuenen  at-  ] 
tempts  to  sustain  this  charge  of  ignorance  or  design 
by  seven  examples,  five  of  which  I  shall  examine  here,  \ 
leaving  two  to  be  considered  in  other  chapters,  where 
they  properly  belong.  We  may  be  certain  that  these 
examples  are  the  strongest  and  clearest  which  Kuenen 
could  discover  ;  for  a  critic  so  able  and  so  much  accus- 
tomed to  debate  would  not  fail  to  select  the  most  effect- 
ive weapons.  If  therefore  they  shall  turn  out  to  be 
quite  innocent,  because  quite  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  literature,  we  may  dismiss  more  briefly  any 
others  which  we  may  be  called  upon  to  notice  in  the 
farther  progress  of  our  work. 

The  first  instance  is  Isa.  28  :  16,  as  quoted  in 
Rom.  9:33;  10:11;  1  Peter  2  :  6,  8.  The  Hebrew 
reads,  as  translated  by  Toy :  "  Behold,  I  found  in  Zion 
a  stone,  a  precious  corner-stone,  solidly  founded  ;  he 
who  trusts  shall  not  make  haste."  The  accusation  of 
Kuenen  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  passage  is  quoted 
in  the  New  Testament  with  the  addition  of  the  words 
"in  him,"  so  that  it  reads:  "He  who  trusts  in  him 
shall  not  make  haste."  He  objects  to  the  words  "in 
him,"   "because,"  he  says,  "they  make  it  possible  to 


46  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

understand  the  trusting  of  which  the  prophet  speaks 
as  trusting  in  the  Christ.  If  they  are  omitted,  then, 
of  course,  he  means  trusting  in  Jahvch." 

The  answer  is  twofold. 

First,  the  words  "  in  him  "  are  found  also  in  the  Tar- 
>gum  on  the  passage,1  proving  that  the  rabbis  were  ac- 
customed to  insert  them  as  an  explanation  of  the  mean- 
ing.2 They  also  considered  the  passage  Messianic,  as 
the  Targum  shows.  It  referred  primarily  to  Jehovah, 
who,  the  prophet  says,  in  the  disasters  of  Israel  from 
the  hostilities  of  the  Assyrians,  will  set  himself  and 
his  word  as  a  firm  foundation-stone.  Those  who  be- 
lieve on  him,  or  on  it,  shall  not  make  haste  to  flee  from 
the  enemy.  But  the  rabbis  may  have  been  quite  right 
in  seeing  in  the  verse  also  a  prediction  of  the  Messiah, 
on  the  principle  of  double  reference,  which  I  shall  con- 
sider in  the  ninth  chapter  of  this  book. 

But  secondly,  we  do  not  need  to  insist  upon  this. 
We  may  allow  Toy,  who  belongs  to  the  same  school  of 
criticism  with  Kucncn,  to  express  for  us  the  view  which 
we  may  adopt,  and  which  at  once  refutes  the  charge 
which  we  are  considering  :  "  The  spiritual  principle  an- 
nounced by  the  prophet — that  God  is  a  firm  foundation 
for  those  who  trust  in  him,  and  a  terror  to  those  who 
willfully  reject  him — finds  a  new  illustration  in  every 
new  manifestation  of  him,  and  the  most  striking  of  all 
in  the  last  and  highest  self-manifestation  in  Jesus 
Christ."  We  may  carry  this  thought  a  little  farther. 
The  apostles  taught  that  Christ  was  "God  manifest  in 

i  Toy,  "  Quotations,"  p.  I  : 

2  The  custom  <>f  adding  to  a  passage  words  designed  t<>  explain  ii  will 
be  considered  in  <mr  fourth  cbapti  r. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  47 

the  flesh."  Hence,  to  believe  on  Jehovah  truly  was 
to  believe  on  Christ,  and  to  believe  on  Christ  was  to 
believe  on  Jehovah  :  "  Whosoever  denieth  the  Son,  the 
same  hath  not  the  Father  :  he  that  confesseth  the  Son 
hath  the  Father  also." l  All  Christians  to-day  hold 
this.  Much,  therefore,  of  that  which  was  said  of  Je- 
hovah could  be  applied  to  Christ  with  perfect  pro- 
priety, as  in  the  quotation  before  us,  where  the  effect 
of  faith  in  Jehovah  and  the  effect  of  faith  in  Christ  are 
justly  held  to  be  similar  or  identical. 

Another  instance  of  such  a  change  in  the  quotation 
as  Kuenen  thinks  cannot  be  justified,  he  finds  in  Rom. 
1 1  :  2-4,  where  the  sacred  writer  quotes  from  1  Kings 
19:10-18.  If  we  turn  to  the  Old  Testament  passage, 
we  read  that  Elijah  in  a  moment  of  discouragement, 
mourns  that  he  is  left  alone  in  his  allegiance  to  Jeho- 
vah, while  all  the  rest  of  his  nation  have  become  Baal- 
worshipers.  The  result  may  be  stated  in  the  words  of 
Kuenen  : 

The  complaint  is  answered  by  Jahveh  commanding  him  to 
anoint  Hazael  to  be  king  of  Syria,  Jehu  to  be  king  of  Israel,  and 
Elisha  to  be  a  prophet.  "  It  shall  come  to  pass,"  so  it  is  said 
farther,  "that  him  that  escapeth  the  sword  of  Hazael  shall  Jehu 
slay  ;  and  him  that  escapeth  the  sword  of  Jehu  shall  Elisha  slay. 
Yet  I  will  leave  seven  thousand  in  Israel,  all  the  knees  that  have 
not  bowed  before  Baal,  and  every  mouth  which  hath  not  paid 
homage  to  him."  The  meaning  is  not  for  a  moment  doubtful  : 
the  judgment  to  be  executed  by  Hazael,  Jehu,  and  Elisha,  of 
course  strikes  the  wicked  ;  .  .  .  only  those  faithful  to  Jahveh, 
seven  thousand  in  number — a  round  number,  of  course — shall 
be  spared,  and  shall  remain  after  the  punishment  has  been 
executed.     But  of  this  narrative  Paul  takes  the  first  verse,  the 

1  1  John  2  :  23. 


48  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

complaint  of  Elijah,  and  the  last,  the  prophecy  concerning  the 
sparing  of  the  seven  thousand,  and  cites  them  in  such  a  way 
that  he  brings  them  into  immediate  connection  with  each  other. 
For  in  place  of  "  I  will  leave,"  he  writes  :  "I  have  reserved  to 
myself  seven  thousand  men  who  have  not  bowed  the  knee 
before  Baal."  Elijah  complains,  "  I  am  left  alone"  ;  God  re- 
plies, "Thou  art  mistaken;  there  are  still  seven  thousand 
faithful  men  remaining."  Of  this  opposition,  or  if  it  be  pre- 
ferred, of  this  correction  of  Elijah,  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found 
in  the  original.  True,  the  inference  may  also  be  derived  from 
it  that  Elijah  was  not  the  only  servant  of  Jahveh,  and  had  there- 
fore been  guilty  of  exaggeration  in  his  despondency  ;  but  in  the 
quotation  as  given  by  Paul  this  stands  in  the  foreground  as  the 
real  chief  matter. 

The  first  charge  against  the  writer  of  Romans  is  that 
he  changes  the  tense  of  the  original,  and  makes  God 
say,  not  "  I  will  leave  seven  thousand,"  but  "  I  have 
reserved  seven  thousand."  This  change,  however, 
makes  absolutely  no  difference  with  the  course  of 
thought  pursued  by  the  apostle,  which  is  as  follows  : 
Elijah  deemed  himself  alone  in  his  faithfulness  ;  but 
God  declared  that  it  was  not  so,  that  a  very  large 
number  should  be  preserved  from  idolatry  and  from 
its  punishment.  "In  the  same  manner,  then,"  the 
apostle  continues,  "at  the  present  time  there  is  a  rem- 
nant according  to  the  election  of  grace."  "As  there 
was  a  remnant  of  old,  so  there  is  a  remnant  now.  " 
Let  the  reader  change  the  tense  of  the  quotation  and 
make  it  future  or  past,  as  he  prefers,  and  he  will  see- 
that  the  historic- parallel  remains  wholly  unaffected 

When  Kuenen  denies  that  the  answer  of  Jehovah 
was  intended  to  cheer  the  despondency  of  Elijah  by 
showing  him  that  he  was  not  alone,  he  goes  very  far  in 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  49 

order  to  discover  a  small  objection  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment. It  is  difficult  to  understand  how  any  fair  man, 
after  reading  the  narrative,  can  say  :  "  Of  this  correction 
of  Elijah  there  is  no  trace  to  be  found  in  the  original." 
The  entire  answer  was  adapted  to  remove  the  dis- 
couragement of  the  prophet,  and  Toy  is  right  in  calling 
it  "  God's  consoling  word  to  Elijah." 

Does  the  apostle  consider  the  answer  of  God  to  Eli- 
jah a  prediction  of  a  remnant  of  Israel  in  his  own  days  ? 
Toy1  answers  in  the  affirmative,  and  there  need  be  no 
objection  to  this  view.  The  argument  would  then 
be  as  follows :  "  As  God  was  careful  even  in  such 
times  of  declension  to  keep  a  remnant  of  Israel  true,  so 
will  he  be  careful  now.  His  mercy,  so  conspicuously 
displayed  then,  is  a  pledge  and  prophecy  that  his 
mercy  to  his  chosen  people  shall  never  fail."  This  use 
of  sacred  history  is  common.  Knowing  that  God  is 
unchangeable,  we  say  :  "  He  made  his  gospel  prevalent 
over  ancient  heathenism,  and  this  is  a  sure  prophecy  of 
the  success  of  modern  missions  to  the  heathen."  "  He 
did  not  permit  the  Roman  government  to  destroy  his 
holy  word  in  the  third  century,  and  this  is  a  sure 
prophecy  that  he  will  not  permit  it  to  be  destroyed 
by  any  of  its  foes,  but  will  give  it  to  the  world."  "  He 
sustained  me  wonderfully  in  my  great  trials  last  year, 
and  this  is  a  sure  prophecy  that  he  will  not  desert  me 
in  those  which  are  to  come." 

But  we  are  not  obliged  to  take  this  view.  Toy  bases 
it  on  the  word  rendered  "  then  "  in  both  our  Common 
and  Revised  English  versions  of  verse  five.      He  con- 


"  Quotations,"  p.  154. 
E 


50  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

siders  this  word  as  equivalent  to  "  therefore."  But 
it  is  by  no  means  always  so ;  and  it  is  perhaps  not 
usually  so.  Thayer1  gives  this  as  its  primary,  though 
not  its  only  meaning,  and  adds  that  "  others  regard  the 
primary  force  of  the  word  as  confirmatory  and  continu- 
ative,  rather  than  illative,"  and  cites  Passow,  Liddell 
and  Scott,  Kiihner,  Baumlein,  Kriiger,  Donaldson, 
Rost,  Klotz,  and  Hartung,  as  holding  the  latter  opin- 
ion. If  we  read  the  passage  in  this  latter  way,  we 
shall  regard  its  author  as  referring  to  the  story  of  Eli- 
jah merely  for  an  encouraging  example,  a  vivid  illustra- 
tion, a  historic  parallel. 

Another  instance  of  what  Kuenen  regards  as  un- 
warranted change  is  found  at  i  Cor.  14  :  21,  22,  where 
the  Apostle  Paul  quotes  Isa.  28  :  11,  12,  as  follows: 
"  In  the  law  it  is  written,  By  men  of  strange  tongues 
and  by  the  lips  of  strangers  will  I  speak  unto  this 
people,  and  not  even  thus  will  they  hear  me,  saith  the 
Lord.  Wherefore  tongues  are  for  a  sign,  not  to  them 
that  believe,  but  to  the  unbelieving." 

The  truth  which  the  apostle  here  illustrates,  is  that 
the  gift  of  tongues  is  not  an  evidence  of  a  high  degree 
of  faith,  as  is  that  of  prophecy,  but  of  a  relatively  low 
degree  of  faith.  lie  illustrates  it  by  quoting  a  passage 
in  which  Isaiah  upbraids  the  people  for  their  disobedi- 
ence. The  prophet  had  pointed  out  to  them  their  true 
rest,  but  they  would  not  enter  into  it.  He  therefore 
declares  that  God  will  speak  to  them  "  by  men  of  for- 
eign tongues  and  by  the  lips  of  foreigners,"  referring 
to    the    A  .    who    were    destined    to   carry    them 


Lexicon,"  at  the  word 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  51 

away  captive  to  a  land  where  they  would  hear  a  for- 
eign speech.  This  is  to  befall  them  because  when  they 
were  admonished  "they  would  not  hear."  Now  in 
place  of  this  last  phrase,  "they  would  not  hear,"  the 
apostle  has,  "  and  yet  for  all  that  they  will  not  hear 
me."  This  is  the  change  which  Kuenen  condemns, 
affirming  that  it  favors,  if  it  was  not  designed  to  favor, 
the  teaching  of  the  apostle  that  the  gift  of  tongues  is 
a  sign  to  the  unbelieving.  But  it  does  not  in  the  least. 
The  original  may  be  considered  even  stronger,  since  it 
connects  by  a  direct  assertion  the  affliction  of  foreign 
tongues  with  the  unbelief  of  the  people,  making  the 
latter  the  cause  of  the  former.  Toy  is  much  more 
moderate  here  than  Kuenen,  and  says  :  "  The  apostle 
gives  the  verbal  sense  of  the  Hebrew  with  general 
correctness  in  his  translation." 

The  difficulties  found  with  the  passage  arise  chiefly 
from  misinterpretation.  The  erroneous  view  often 
advanced  is  this  :  When  the  writer  says  that  "  tongues 
are  for  a  sign  to  the  unbelieving,"  he  has  in  mind  the 
heathen  who  might  be  present  in  the  Christian  assem- 
bly. These  heathen  would  not  understand  the  sign  ; 
they  would  say:  "Ye  are  mad."  Hence  the  writer 
changes  the  quotation  to  make  it  correspond  with  this 
rejection  of  the  sign,  and  represents  the  prophet  as 
saying  :  "  And  not  even  thus  will  they  hear  me,  saith 
the  Lord,"  instead  of  :  "  Yet  they  would  not  hear." 

But  this  view  of  the  statement  that  "  tongues  are 
for  a  sign  to  the  unbelieving  "  is  wrong,  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons  :  (1)  The  unbelievers  upbraided  and  threat- 
ened by  Isaiah,  in  the  passage  quoted,  are  not  the 
heathen — they  are  the  Jews  ;  and  hence  the  "unbeliev- 


52  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

ing  "  in  Corinth  to  whom  "tongues  were  for  a  sign" 
were  not  the  heathen,  but  the  erring  people  of  God, 
of  whom  the  faithless  Jews  were  a  type.  (2)  The 
Apostle  Paul  was  not  so  foolish  as  to  say  that  "tongues 
are  for  a  sign  "  to  a  class  of  men  who  would  not  prob- 
ably hear  them  at  all,  and  who,  if  they  heard  them,  as 
he  himself  says,  would  necessarily  suppose  the  speakers 
to  be  insane.  (3)  The  antithesis  established  in  the  sen- 
tence shows  that  the  writer  is  thinking  of  an  unbeliev- 
ing church,  as  contrasted  with  a  believing  church, 
when  he  says  that  "  tongues  are  for  a  sign,  not  to  them 
that  believe,  but  to  the  unbelieving  :  but  prophesying 
is  for  a  sign,  not  to  the  unbelieving,  but  to  them  that 
believe."  Who  are  they  "that  believe"  in  this  case? 
Not  the  heathen,  but  a  church  well  advanced  in  Chris- 
tian faith.  The  "unbelieving"  therefore  are  not  the 
heathen,  but  a  church  little  advanced  in  Christian  faith. 
(4)  Let  us  assume  for  a  moment  that  the  "  unbeliev- 
ing"  are  those  without  the  church,  and  the  "believ- 
ing" those  within,  ami  see  what  conclusion  we  are 
driven  to.  "Tongues,"  in  that  case,  "are  a  sign"  to 
those  without  the  church,  and  yet  produce  no  good 
effect  upon  them  ;  while  "prophecy  "  "  is  not  a  sign  "  to 
those  without,  and  yet  becomes  the  means  of  their  con- 
version. The  "  philosophic  apostle  "  never  reasoned  in 
this  way.  Evidently,  then,  the  two  "  signs,"  -  tongues  " 
and  "prophecy,"  are  considered  in  this  passage  as 
"signs"  in  relation  to  the  church,  and  not  in  relation 
to  those  without  the  church,  though  in  relation  to 
these  also  "prophecy"  might  be  called  a  very  valuable 
"sign,"  since   it    is   adapted   to   reach  their  minds  ami 

1  ons<  iences. 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  53 

Is  it  said  that  the  apostle  would  not  apply  the  word 
"unbelieving"  to  the  Corinthian  church?  But  in 
Titus  1  :  1  5  he  applies  it  to  recreant  Christians,  and 
in  John  20  :  27  our  Lord  himself  applies  it  to  Thomas, 
one  of  his  apostles.  Then  why  should  it  not  be  ap- 
plied here  to  a  church  proven  by  the  whole  epistle  to 
have  been  complacent  in  the  toleration  of  most  fright- 
ful sins  in  its  communicants  ? 

Is  it  said  that  the  writer  applies  the  word  "  unbe- 
lieving "  in  the  very  next  verse  to  the  heathen  ?  Yes  ; 
he  permits  it  to  return  to  its  ordinary  reference  there, 
as  is  natural.  This  sudden  shifting  of  the  reference 
of  a  word  is  common  in  all  literatures,  and  I  could 
readily  adduce  a  hundred  instances  of  it  both  from 
classical  English  and  classical  Greek  ;  but  the  follow- 
ing examples  from  a  single  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment may  suffice:  the  word  "temple,"  John  2  :  19,  20; 
the  word  "born,"  3:6;  the  words  "lifted  up,"  3  :  14; 
the  word  "water,"  4  :  10,  11  ;  the  word  "thirst,"  4  : 
14,  15;  the  words  "to  eat,"  4:32,  33;  the  word 
"harvest,"  4:35;  the  word  "meat,"  6  :  27  ;  the  word 
"bread,"  6  :  32  ;  the  words  "eat"  and  "flesh,"  6  :  52, 
53,  63  ;  the  word  "father,"  8  :  38,  39,  56;  the  word 
"God,"  10  :  35,  36;  the  word  "sleep,"  11  :  11,  12; 
the  word  "wash,"  13  :8;  the  word  "world,"  17  : 
24,  25. 

The  interpretation  of  the  passage  which  I  have  given 
is  sustained  by  Beet,  Conybeare,  Storr,  Flatt,  Baur, 
Schulz,  Kling,  and  many  others. 

The  argument  of  the  apostle  then  is  as  follows  :  Had 
the  Israelites  before  the  captivity  believed  Jehovah, 
they  would  have  listened  to   Isaiah   the  prophet,  and 


54  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

would  have  been  nourished  and  guided  by  the  gift  of 
prophecy ;  but  as  they  were  unbelieving,  the  best  that 
God  could  do  for  them  was  to  speak  to  them  in  the 
unknown  tongues  of  foreigners.  Even  so,  had  the 
Corinthian  Christians  been  in  a  believing  state,  they 
would  have  possessed  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  would 
have  been  nourished  and  guided  by  their  prophets ;  but 
as  they  were  relatively  unbelieving,  the  best  that  God 
could  do  for  them  was  to  send  them  the  lowest  of 
spiritual  gifts,  that  of  unknown  tongues,  a  sign  to 
strengthen  the  feeble  remnants  of  such  faith  as  they 
possessed,  but  also  a  sign  signifying  the  feebleness  of 
their  faith.  By  seeking  greater  faith  they  would  attain 
higher  gifts  and  receive  the  grace  of  prophecy,  while 
still  retaining  in  due  measure  the  "  tongues  "  on  which 
they  set  such  an  exaggerated  estimate. 

Meyer,  in  his  third  edition,  regards  the  "  tongues  "  of 
the  Old  Testament  passage  as  typical  of  the  "  tongues" 
of  the  apostolic  age,  since  the  foreign  speaking  of  the 
Assyrians  is  declared  by  Isaiah  to  be  in  sonic  sense 
the  speaking  of  God  to  his  people.  "  The  analogy," 
says  Kling,  stating  the  view  of  Meyer,  "  between  the 
type  and  the  antitype  is  founded  on  the  extraordinary 
phenomenon  of  God's  speaking  to  his  people  in  a  for- 
eign tongue;  "and,  I  may  add,  speaking  in  this  way 
instead  of  through  his  prophets.  I  have  no  special 
objection  to  this  view;  yet  I  incline  to  that  of  Shore,1 
who  regards  the  citation  as  ••  rather  an  illustration" 
than  a  proof;  and  of  I  lodge,  who  says  that  "  Paul  does 
not   quote  the   passage   as   having  any  prophetic  rei'ei- 

|  In  Ellicott't  ■■  Ni  •■■•  1 1  tami  nl  I  bmmentary." 


QUOTATIONS   FROM   MEMORY  55 

ence  to  the  events  in  Corinth."  It  is  a  vice  of  many 
commentators  to  see  in  every  quotation  of  the  New 
Testament  an  effort  to  prove  something  ;  whereas  the 
great  majority  of  them,  as  of  the  quotations  in  general 
literature,  are  merely  for  illustration,  for  ornamentation, 
or  for  force  of  language.  The  only  reason  for  suppos- 
ing that  the  quotation  here  is  for  proof  of  doctrine,  is 
found  in  the  Greek  word  rendered  "wherefore,"  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twenty-second  verse.  But  this  word 
is  not  necessarily  one  of  logical  inference.  Gould1 
gives  it  only  the  force  of  "and  so,"  or  "so  that." 
Meyer  renders  it  here  by  "  sonach,"  which  his  English 
translators  render  in  turn  by  "accordingly."  The 
Greek  word  is  used  here  with  a  verb  in  the  indicative, 
and  not  in  the  infinitive  ;  and  "  the  distinction,"  says 
Winer,  "seems  to  be  this  :  with  the  indicative  it  pre- 
sents the  facts  in  succession  purely  externally  as  ante- 
cedent and  consequent  ;  while  with  the  infinitive  it 
brings  them  into  closer  connection  as  issuing  one  from 
the  other." 

The  "  tongues  "  referred  to  by  Isaiah  were  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  "tongues"  referred  to  by  Paul;  and 
many  critics  regard  the  parallel  as  chiefly  one  of  words 
rather  than  of  the  things  signified.  I  do  not  agree 
with  them,  for  there  is  a  very  real  analogy  between  the 
two  cases,  taken  as  a  whole.  But  if  their  view  shall 
commend  itself  to  any  reader,  he  will  find  abundant 
instances  of  this  sort  of  illustration  in  all  literatures,  as 
I  have  shown  in  our  eighth  chapter. 

Still  another  example  of  alleged  unwarranted  change 

1  "  American  Commentary." 


56  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

adduced  by  Kuenen  is  found  in  2  Cor.  6:18,  where  the 
Apostle  Paul  is  rehearsing  certain  admonitions  and 
promises  made  to  the  children  of  God,  and  using  them 
as  the  ground  of  his  exhortation  to  abstain  from  the 
pollutions  of  the  heathen  world.  Among  these  prom- 
ises is  the  following : 

I  will  be  to  you  a  Father, 

And  ye  shall  be  to  me  sons  and  daughters. 

It  is  to  this  that  Kuenen  specially  objects.  Accord- 
ing to  him,  and  many  others  with  him,  it  is  from  the 
address  of  God  to  David  concerning  Solomon  in  2  Sam. 
7:14:  "I  will  be  his  father,  and  he  shall  be  my  son." 
The  apostle  changes  the  person  and  the  number,  in 
order  to  make  the  passage  apply,  not  to  Solomon,  but 
to  Christians,  which,  the  adverse  critic  holds,  he  has 
no  right  to  do. 

There  can  be  no  objection  to  the  supposition  that 
the  words  spoken  by  God  concerning  Solomon  are  in 
the  mind  of  the  apostle,  and  are  adapted  by  slight 
changes  to  their  new  position  in  his  writings.  The 
promise  made  to  David  concerning  Solomon  was  based 
upon  the  character  of  both,  and,  inasmuch  as  God 
"  changeth  not  "  and  "  is  no  respecter  of  persons,"  they 
belong  to  every  devout  soul.  This  promise  is  often 
used  in  the  modern  pulpit,  and  in  modern  religious 
literature,  in  the  same  manner,  as  the  voice  of  God 
to  us.  Indeed,  the  great  majority  of  the  promises  of 
holy  Scripture  were  made  to  individuals  who  lived  cen- 
turies ago,  and  nut  directly  to  us.  Yet  we  always 
quote  them  as  pointing  to  ourselves.  Nor  do  we  con- 
sider  it  necessary  to  excuse  ourselves  when   we  <l>  so  ; 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  57 

the  immutability  and  impartiality  of  God  enter  so 
deeply  into  Christian  consciousness  that  we  never 
think  of  calling  them  in  question,  or  of  reasoning  to 
establish  them.  This  is  the  view  of  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  as,  for  instance,  in  1  Cor.  10  :  1 1  : 
"  Now  these  things  happened  unto  them  by  way  of  ex- 
ample :  and  they  are  written  for  our  admonition,  upon 
whom  the  ends  of  the  ages  are  come."  The  criticism 
of  Kuenen  would  forbid  us  to  apply  any  promises  of 
the  Bible  to  ourselves,  except  those  of  a  very  general 
nature.  "  Thy  brother  shall  rise  again,"  would  not  be 
for  us.  "  Them  that  are  fallen  asleep  in  Jesus  will 
God  bring  with  him,"  would  not  be  for  us.  "  Believe 
on  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  thou  shalt  be  saved,"  would  not 
be  for  us.  We  cannot  admit  the  objection  based  upon 
the  application  to  all  Christians  of  words  spoken  con- 
cerning one  whom  God  recognized  as  his  child.  Nor 
can  we  condemn  the  apostle  for  the  slight  grammatical 
changes  by  which  he  adapts  the  words  to  their  new 
position,  for  we  often  quote  in  the  same  manner.  We 
say  :  "  Your  brother  shall  rise  again,"  when  we  are  at- 
tending the  funeral  of  a  young  Christian  man,  and  are 
endeavoring  to  console  his  bereaved  family.  We  say  : 
"  He  has  fallen  asleep  in  Jesus,  and  therefore  God  will 
bring  him  with  Christ  at  the  last  day."  We  say  :  "  Be- 
lieve on  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  ye  shall  be  saved,"  apply- 
ing to  many  hearers  or  readers  the  promise  given  to  a 
single  individual.  In  a  thousand  such  instances  we 
change  the  grammatical  person,  the  number,  the  tense, 
and  yet  quote  faithfully. 

I   am  not  confident,  however,  that  the  quotation  is 
taken  from  2  Sam.  7:14.      It  seems  to  me  to  be  rather 


58  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

a  summing  up  of  various  expressions  in  the  prophets, 
like  those  of  Ezek.  36  :  28  :  "  Ye  shall  be  my  people,  and 
I  will  be  your  God  ; "  or  like  those  of  Jer.  31  :  1,  4,  20, 
22,  33  :  "I  will  be  the  God  of  all  the  families  of  Israel, 
and  they  shall  be  my  people  ; "  "  Thou  shalt  be  built,  O 
virgin  of  Israel  ;  "  "  Is  Ephraim  my  dear  son  ?  Is  he  a 
pleasant  child?"  "O  thou  back-sliding  daughter;" 
"  I  will  be  their  God,  and  they  shall  be  my  people." 
This  is  the  more  probable,  since  the  quotation '  with 
which  the  whole  series  here  opens  is  a  combination  and 
condensation  of  two  passages,  such  as  I  shall  illustrate 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  this  book.  The  application  to 
Christians  of  promises  made  to  penitent  and  believing 
Israel  needs  no  argument  to  justify  it,  since  it  is  con- 
stantly illustrated  in  every  sermon  and  every  religious 
book. 

One  more  of  the  examples  of  freedom  in  quoting 
which  Kuenen  adduces  to  condemn,  is  in  Eph.  4  :  8. 
The  Apostle  Paul  is  speaking  of  the  spiritual  gifts  of 
Christ  to  his  people.  They  are  "  according  to  the 
measure  of  the  gift  of  Christ  "  ;  that  is,  as  many  com- 
mentators hold,  according  to  his  wise  and  holy  pleasure  ; 
or,  perhaps  better,  according  to  his  abundance  and  lib- 
erality. To  illustrate  the  statement  that  the  spiritual 
gifts  of  the  church  are  from  Christ,  the  writer  quotes 
from  Ps.  68  :  18  : 

When  lie  ascended  on  high,  lie  led  captivity  captive, 
And  ;_;.i\  e  -ills  unto  men. 


1   2  Cor,   6  :  l6:    "  I    will   dwell   ill   them   and    walk  with    them,"    from 

■<-.  [i,  12  and  Ezek.37:27.   Toy  calls  the  citation  a  "  combination 
of  the  twn  passages,  and  condensation." 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  59 

But  turning  to  the  psalm,  we  perceive  that  the  second 
of  these  lines  is  as  follows  : 

Thou  hast  received  gifts  among  men. 

Here  apparently  is  a  radical  change  ;  in  the  psalm  the 
person  addressed  receives  gifts  from  men  ;  in  the  quota- 
tion he  distributes  them  among  men. 

The  explanation  is  to  be  found  largely  in  the  remark 
of  Meyer, r  that  the  Hebrew  word  rendered  "  received  " 
"  has  often  the  proleptic  sense  to  fetch,  that  is,  to  take 
anything  for  a  person  and  to  give  it  to  him."  The 
apostle,  in  the  opinion  of  Meyer,  makes  "  an  exposition 
of  the  Hebrew  words,  which  yielded  essentially  the 
sense  expressed  by  him."  He  read  the  psalm  as  say- 
ing :  "  Thou  didst  receive  gifts  to  distribute  them 
among  men"  ;  and,  to  quote  Meyer  again,  "translated 
this  in  an  explanatory  way."  The  "  Speaker's  Com- 
mentary "  gives  the  following  instances  of  this  use  of 
the  Hebrew  word:  Gen.  18  :  5  ;  27  :  13  ;  42  :  16  ; 
Exod.  27  :  20 ;  Lev.  24  :  2  ;  and  2  Kings  2  :  20. 
Ellicott2  says  the  word  is  used  "constantly"  in  this 
sense.  "  It  appears,"  according  to  Toy,  "  that  such  a 
translation  existed  among  the  Jews  ;  for  it  is  found 
in  the  Peshito-Syriac  and  the  Targum." 

Even  if  the  Hebrew  word  had  not  contained  this 
thought,  the  apostle  would  have  found  the  psalm  full 
of  it,  and  would  only  have  expressed  the  meaning  of 
the  whole  sublime  ode  by  his  phraseology. 

A  father  of  the  fatherless  and  a  judge  of  the  widows 
Is  God  in  his  holy  habitation. 

1  "  Commentary  on  Ephesians."  2  "  Commentary  on  Ephesians." 


60  QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

He  bringeth  out  the  prisoners  into  prosperity. 

Thou,  O  God,  didst  send  a  plentiful  rain, 

Thou  didst  confirm  thine  inheritance  when  it  was  weary. 

Thou,  O  God,  didst  prepare  thy  goodness  for  the  poor. 

She  that  tarrieth  at  home  divideth  the  spoil. 

Blessed  be  the  Lord  Jehovah,  who  daily  beareth  our  burdens. 

Such  are  some  of  the  expressions  of  this  psalm  con- 
cerning the  gifts  of  God  to  men. 

Moreover,  as  all  interpreters  agree,  the  psalm  cele- 
brates a  victory,  or  a  series  of  victories.  It  represents 
the  conqueror  as  returning  home  crowned  with  glory 
and  laden  with  the  fruits  of  success.  Now,  ancient 
warfare  always  resulted  in  the  spoiling  of  the  van- 
quished ;  men  enlisted  in  the  army  in  the  hope  of  en- 
riching themselves  with  plunder ;  and  the  victor,  who 
stripped  his  foes  and  received  gifts  from  the  peoples 
he  subdued,  made  large  distribution  to  his  followers  ; 
to  take  was  to  give  ;  and  the  two  things  would  readily 
be  associated  in  the  thought  as  one.  The  explanation 
of  the  verse  given  by  the  apostle  in  this  change  of 
its  form,  if  we  are  to  recognize  a  change,  would  strike 
his  readers  as  a  natural  and  obvious  method  of  bring- 
ing out  the  real  meaning  of  the  original. 

The  literary  custom  of  changing  a  quotation  in  order 
to  explain  it  will  be  considered  in  our  fmnth  chapter, 
and  the  Messianic  character  of  the  psalm  in  the  ninth. 

It  might  have  been  gratifying  to  us,  in  a  certain 
sense,  had  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  quoted  the 
Septuagint  version  with  verbal  exactness,  as  they  would 
have  contributed  much,  in  that  ease,  to  the  restoration 
of  the  text  of  this  version,  now  in  some  disorder.  But 
this  one  small  advantage  would  have  been  overbalanced 


QUOTATIONS   FROM    MEMORY  6l 

by  disadvantages  of  a  serious  kind.  Had  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  departed  from  the  literary  cus- 
toms of  their  age,  to  quote  with  verbal  exactness  in  all 
instances,  their  example  would  have  been  cited  as  ir- 
refutable proof  of  verbal  and  mechanical,  instead  of 
dynamic  inspiration.  Their  freedom  in  quoting  has 
done  much  to  deliver  us  from  this  view,  once  so 
generally  held,  and  now  as  generally  abandoned.  But 
further ;  such  careful  adherence  to  the  letter  of 
the  Greek  version  would  have  been  regarded  as  a 
divine  seal  set  upon  this  version  ;  and  it  would 
have  taken  the  place  of  final  authority  which  the 
Roman  Catholics  sought  to  give  to  the  Latin  Vulgate 
by  a  decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,1  and  no  subse- 
quent discovery  of  its  many  blemishes  would  have  suf- 
ficed to  undo  the  mischief  or  relieve  the  sensitive  con- 
sciences of  the  faithful,  who  would  have  been  cast  into 
distressing  perplexity  by  this  plenary  approval  of  a 
work  which  their  reason  could  not  but  pronounce  im- 
perfect. But  also  unbelievers  would  have  seen  their 
opportunity,  and  critics  of  the  school  of  Kuenen  would 
have  been  the  first  to  reproach  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  both  for  holding  an  erroneous  doctrine  of 
inspiration  and  for  ignorance  of  the  faults  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version.  These  writers  were  wise,  therefore, 
in  quoting  as  they  did,  with  primary  reference  to  the 
meaning,  and  with  a  certain  disregard  of  the  language. 

1  Schaff,  "The  Creeds  of  Christendom,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  82. 


Ill 

FRAGMENTARY    QUOTATIONS 

THE  writers  of  the  New  Testament  often  make  use 
of  quotations  so  brief  and  fragmentary  that  the 
reader  cannot  readily  determine  the  degree  of  support, 
if  any,  which  is  thus  gained  for  the  argument.  .This 
is  for  substance  one  of  the  objections  of  Kuenen,  who 
writes  as  follows  of  the  psalms  usually  termed  Mes- 
sianic : 

Of  these  psalms  some  verses,  or  occasionally  a  single  verse, 
are  quoted  as  prophecies  concerning  the  Christ,  or  as  contain- 
ing words  of  the  Christ,  generally  without  the  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  such  an  explanation,  which  can  be  drawn  from 
other  parts,  being  discussed  or  removed. 

It  is  true  that  brief  and  fragmentary  quotations  from 
the  Old  Testament  occur  in  the  New,  but  the  blame 
implied  in  the  statement  of  Kuenen  is  unjust,  and  re- 
sults from  inattention  to  the  quotations  in  general  lit- 
erature. 

The  following  are  characteristic  examples  of  the 
brief  quotations  censured  by  Kuenen:  lleb.  I  :  5, 
from  Ps.  2:7:  "Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day  have  I  be- 
gotten thee."  Meb.  1  :  6,  perhaps  from  the  Septua- 
gint  of  Deut.  32  :  43:  "And  let  all  the  angels  of 
God  worship  him."  1  leb.  2  :  [2,  from  Ps.  22  :  22  : 
"I  will  declare  thy  name  unto  my  brethren;  in  the 
midst  of  the  congregation  will  I  sing  thy  praise." 
62 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  63 

Heb.  2  :  13,  from  Isa.  8  :  18  :  "Behold  I  and  the 
children  which  God  hath  given  me."  When  we  read 
such  quotations  as  these  we  naturally  ask,  Whence  do 
they  come  ?  Finding  their  sources,  we  ask  again,  With 
what  right  are  they  referred  to  Christ  or  to  his  people  ? 
And  again,  Why  was  not  the  whole  context  quoted 
in  each  case,  so  that  every  reader  of  the  text  might 
judge  for  himself  of  the  propriety  of  the  use  made  of 
it  ?  Upon  reflection  it  becomes  manifest,  however,  that 
to  have  quoted  the  whole  context  in  every  such  case 
would  have  swelled  the  New  Testament  to  immoderate 
proportions  and  thus  have  prevented  its  general  use. 
It  would  also  have  rendered  the  argument  too  compli- 
cated and  tortuous  for  our  comprehension.  Moreover, 
in  order  to  render  the  reasoning  of  the  sacred  writer 
sufficient  for  the  demands  of  the  captious  reader,  it 
would  have  been  necessary  at  every  point  to  explain  at 
length  the  relation  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New 
as  its  ground-work,  its  seed-form,  its  prototype,  its 
prophecy. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  last  of  these  examples  as 
an  illustration  of  what  I  have  just  said.  The  context 
which  it  is  necessary  to  understand  embraces  several 
chapters,  which  of  course  could  not  be  brought  into  the 
epistle  without  violating  all  laws  of  literary  proportion 
and  rendering  the  argument  insufferably  tedious.  Then 
again,  the  original  passage  refers  to  Christ  and  his  peo- 
ple only  as  the  germ  in  the  soil  refers  to  the  plant 
which  it  is  to  unfold  ;  and,  to  satisfy  Kuenen  and  the 
critics  of  his  school,  it  would  be  necessary  to  express 
this  view  and  to  justify  it,  in  connection  with  the  quo- 
tation, though  not  for  the  satisfaction  of  such  readers 


64  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

as  the  New  Testament  writer  immediately  addressed, 
to  whom  the  Old  Testament  was  a  familiar  book  of 
prophecy  containing  in  many  places  typical  foreshad- 
owings  of  Christ  and  his  church.  Still  further,  only  half 
a  sentence  is  quoted  ;  its  grammatical  form  in  Greek, 
as  in  English,  shows  its  incompleteness,  and  challenges 
the  mind  at  once  to  think  of  the  remaining  words  and 
of  their  setting  in  the  prophecy. 

Frequently  long  passages  from  the  Old  Testament 
are  compressed  in  the  New  by  the  omission  of  portions, 
and  the  retention  only  of  enough  to  show  their  distinct 
relation  to  the  matter  brought  forward  by  the  writer. 
Instances  of  such  abridgement  are  found  at  John  12  : 
40  ;  Acts  2  :  25-28  ;  8  :  32,  33  ;  15:16  ;  TIeb.  2  :  6. 
At  Heb.  4  :  3,  two  lines  only  from  Ps.  95  :  11  are 
quoted,  because  the  longer  passage,  on  which  the  whole 
argument  turns,  has  been  produced  in  the  preceding 
chapter.  This  kind  of  compression  is  common  in  all  / 
literatures.  With  us,  it  is  often  indicated  by  dots  to  v 
show  where  portions  of  the  passage  have  been  omitted; 
but  frequently  we  employ  no  such  device.  None  was 
employed  by  the  writers  of  antiquity,  for  no  punctua- 
tion of  any  sort  had  been  invented. 

It  is  not  to  such  compression,  however,  that  the  chief 
objection  is  made,  but  to  the  quotation  of  brief  phrases 
designed  to  bring  to  mind  the  longer  passages  from 
which  they  are  taken. 

The  same  thing  occurs  in  the  quotations  of  all  liter- 
atures, and  the  reader  is  supposed  to  know  the  con- 
text for  himself,  or  to  turn  to  it,  if  unfamiliar  with 
it.  A  few  examples  will  prove  this  statement,  as  far 
as    it   concerns   ancient    literature,  and  show  that  the 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  65 

writers  of  the  New  Testament  quote  quite  like  other 
writers. 

The  first  is  from  Plato's  "Symposium,"  section  174. 
Jowett  translates  it  thus  : 

' '  I  am  afraid,  Socrates, ' '  said  Aristodemus,  ' '  that  I  may  be  the 
inferior  person,  who,  like  Menelaus  in  Homer, 

To  the  feasts  of  the  wise  unbidden  goes. 

But  I   shall  say  that  I   was  bidden  by  you,  and  then  you  will 
have  to  make  the  excuse." 

"  Two  going  together, 

he  replied,  in  Homeric  fashion,  "may  invent  an  excuse  by  the 
way." 

What  is  the  story  in  Homer  from  which  these  quota- 
tions are  made  ?  What  light  does  it  throw  upon  the 
situation  of  the  speakers  in  the  dialogue?  The  Greek 
readers  of  the  "  Symposium,"  familiar  with  Homer  from 
the  cradle,  would  know  at  once.  But  the  majority  of 
modern  readers  must  turn  to  the  "  Iliad  "  before  they 
can  answer  these  questions,  and  those  who  do  so,  gain  a 
higher  appreciation  of  the  ready  wit  with  which  Socrates 
replies  to  his  friend.  The  literary  art  of  Plato,  in  deal- 
ing thus  with  the  great  poem,  is  perfect.  Every  writer 
must  assume  that  the  reader  possesses  a  certain  degree 
of  intelligence,  and  every  reader  must  lend  the  writer 
the  assistance  of  his  intelligence.  Human  life  has  its 
limits,  and  if  all  quotations  and  literary  allusions  had  to 
be  accompanied  by  elaborate  explications,  no  literature 
could  be  mastered  within  the  few  short  years  allotted 
to  us  on  earth. 

If  we  turn  over  a  single  leaf  of  the  "  Symposium,"  we 
come  to  another  instance  of  the  same  kind : 


66  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Eryximachus  proceeded  as  follows  :  "I  will  begin,"  he  said, 
"after  the  manner  of  Melanippe  in  Euripides, 

'  Not  mine  the  word  ' 

which  I  am  about  to  speak,  but  that  of  Phaedrus.  For  he  is  in 
the  habit  of  complaining  that,  whereas  other  gods  have  poems 
and  hymns  made  in  their  honor,  the  great  and  glorious  god,  Love, 
has  no  encomiast  among  all  the  poets  who  are  so  many." 

Here  we  have  but  half  a  line.  The  whole  line  is  quoted 
by  another  Greek  writer,  but  the  context  is  lost,  and 
with  it  our  ability  to  enjoy  the  wit  of  the  speaker. 

The  first  quotation  in  the  "  Laws  "  presents  a  contrast 
to  these.  Here  the  speaker  quotes  a  part  of  a  line  from 
Tyrtams,   a   Spartan   citizen  enamored  of  war  : 

I  sing  not,  I  care  not  about  any  man. 

After  this  fragmentary  quotation,  the  speaker  contin- 
ues, giving  in  his  own  prose  the  substance  of  what  fol- 
lows in  the  poem.  He  then  tells  us  something  about 
the  views  of  war  which  the  poet  held,  inferring  from 
his  expressions  that  he  sings  the  praises  of  foreign  war 
and  not  civil.  Here  enough  of  the  context  is  sketched 
in  to  enable  us  to  form  some  conception,  though  a  dim 
one,  of  the  argument  of  the  poem. 

There  are  in  Plato  probably  as  many  literary  allusions 
and  brief  quotations  which  suppose  in  the  reader  an  ac- 
quaintance   with   the    context,   as  of    this   latter    kind, 
which  is  accompanied  with   an   explanation  oi    the   con 
text. 

Jowett  says  that  their  fragmentary  character  is  a 
striking  feature  of  the  quotations  from  the  poets  in 
Aristotle:      "They  are    often   cited    in    half-lines   only, 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  67 

which  would  be  unintelligible  unless  the  context  was 
present  to  the  mind.  We  are  reminded  that  the  Greek 
youth,  like  some  of  our  own,  were  in  the  habit  of  com- 
mitting to  memory  entire  poets."  A  very  few  instances 
from  Aristotle  will  suffice  to  illustrate  his  custom. 

In  his  "  Rhetoric,"  book  I.,  section  6,  we  have  three 
examples  on  a  single  page.  "  It  is  a  general  rule  that 
whatever  our  enemies  desire  or  rejoice  at,  the  opposite 
of  this  is  clearly  beneficial  to  ourselves.  Hence  the 
point  of  the  lines, 

Sure  Priam  would  rejoice." 

Here  the  whole  passage  of  the  "  Iliad,"  beginning  at  I., 
255,  is  suggested:  it  is  the  speech  in  which  Nestor 
tries  to  reconcile  Achilles  and  Agamemnon. 

Immediately  afterward  we  have  the  words  of  the 
"Iliad,"  II.,  176: 

Yea,  after  Priam's  heart  ; 

and  of  the  "Iliad,"  II.,  298  : 

'Twere  shame  to  tarry  long. 

Welldon  says  of  these  quotations  :  "  The  point  lies 
not  in  the  mere  words  quoted,  but  in  the  context." 

In  his  treatise  on  "  The  Learned  Retained  in  Great 
Families,"  section  5,  Lucian  quotes  from  the  "Theog- 
ony  "  of  Hesiod,  line  179  : 

For  every  man  by  poverty  subdued. 

The  line  itself  says  little  to  the  purpose  of  the  author, 
and  it  is  quoted  only  because  it  is  the  opening  of  a 


6S  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

long  passage  on  the  evils  of  poverty,  of  which  he  would 
remind  the  reader.  Tooke  writes  :  "  Lucian  quotes 
only  a  few  words  as  from  a  common-place  saving.  And 
if  I  were  to  subjoin  in  a  note  all  that  dear  Theognis  says 
concerning  poverty  in  the  passage  referred  to,  perhaps 
the  reader  would  not  thank  me  for  my  trouble." 

In  his  "Oration  on  the  Departure  of  Sallust,"  Julian 
quotes  three  words  from  the  "  Iliad,"  XL,  401  : 

Ulysses  was  alone. 

He  says  that  he  is  reminded  of  these  words  by  his  own 
situation  since  Sallust  has  gone  from  him.  But  he  is 
thinking  of  the  whole  passage,  which  tells  how  Diomed 
was  wounded  by  Paris  and  thus  compelled  to  quit 
the  field,  leaving  Ulysses  unsupported  in  the  fight. 
This  is  evident  from  the  next  sentence,  in  which  he 
speaks  of 

the  darts  which  have  been  launched  at  you  by  sycophants  ; 
or  rather  at  me  through  you  ;  as  thinking  no  method  so  certain 
as  that  of  depriving  me,  if  possible,  of  the  society  of  a  faithful 
friend,  an  alert  defender,  and  a  sharer,  with  the  utmost  alacrity, 
in  all  my  dangers. 

In  the  seventy-fourth  letter  of  Julian,  he  writes  to 
Libanius  about  a  certain  Aristophanes  as  follows  : 

After  this,  perhaps  you  may  ask,  why  we  have  not  placed  his 
affairs  in  a  more  prosperous  state,  and  removed  every  inconveni- 
en<  e  attending  his  disgrace? 

When  two  go  together, 

Y.iii  and   I  will  confer;   for  you  arc  worthy  to  be  Consulted. 

Here,  as  in  Plato,  these  few  words  from  the  "  Iliad" 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  69 

are  intended  to  suggest  the  whole  story  to  which  they 
belong. 

In  the  letter  of  Gallus  to  Julian,  his  brother,  he  com- 
mends highly  the  piety  of  Julian,  saying  : 

You  are  zealously  employed  in  houses  of  prayer,  and  can 
hardly  be  removed  from  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  but  are  en- 
tirely attached  to  our  worship.  I  must  apply  to  you  that  expres- 
sion of  Homer  : 

Shoot  thus. 

The  two  words  quoted  are  from  the  "  Iliad,"  VIII.,  282, 
the  address  of  Agamemnon  to  Teucer,  who  was  slaugh- 
tering the  Trojans  with  his  arrows.  The  king  cried 
with  admiration  : 

Thus  ever  shoot,  and  become  the  glory  of  thy  people. 

Gallus  intends  to  remind  his  princely  brother  of  the 
whole  passage,  and  to  say  :  "  Continue  this  devotion, 
and  become  the  glory  of  the  church,  the  leader  of  the 
people  in  religious  things." 

In  "Strabo,"  book  IX.,  section  24,  is  the  following 
instance : 

In  the  Theban  territory  are  Therapnae  and  Teumessus,  which 
Antimachus  has  extolled  in  a  long  poem,  enumerating  excellences 
which  they  had  not  : 

There  is  a  hillock  exposed  to  the  winds. 

But  the  lines  are  well  known. 

These  instances  from  Greek  literature  have  been  taken 
almost  at  random.  If  we  turn  to  Cicero,  the  chief  Latin 
writer  of  prose,  we  find  the  same  custom.  In  the 
"  Tusculan  Disputations,"  book  II.,  section  8,  he  argues, 


;o  QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

against  Epicurus,  that  pain  is  a  real  and  serious  evil. 
He  endeavors  to  prove  this  by  an  appeal  to  the  poets. 
He  quotes  first  from  Sophocles,  who  represents  even 
Hercules  as  lamenting  his  torture  in  the  tunic  which 
Deianira  had  put  on  him.  lie  quotes  next  from 
.Hschylus,  who  depicts  the  agonies  of  Prometheus 
bound.  In  both  cases  he  reproduces  the  passages  at 
such  length  that  no  one  can  question  their  bearing  on 
the  subject  of  the  debate. 

But  in  the  "  Academics,"  book  II.,  section  [6,  we  have 
a  pair  of  quotations  of  the  other  kind.  Mere  his  asser- 
tion is,  that  illusions  of  the  senses,  such  as  those  of 
dreams  and  intoxication  and  madness,  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  genuine  testimony  of  the  senses  by 
their  lack  of  clearness.  For  proof  he  appeals  to  En- 
nius,  who,  "  when  he  had  a  dream,  related  it  in  this 
way  : 

The  poet  Homer  seemed  to  stand  before  me. 

And  again  in  the  Epicharmus  he  says  : 

For  I  seemed  to  be  dreaming  and  laid  in  the  tomb. 

The  reasoning  of  Cicero  is  this  :  One  who  remembers 
to  have  seen  a  man  in  reality  does  not  say,  "  I  seemed 
to  see  him  "  ;  but  one  who  remembers  to  have  seen  a 
man  in  a  dream,  is  obliged  by  the  obscurity  of  the 
vision   to  say  that   he  seemed    to   see    him.      The   lines 

from  Ennius  are  quoted  to  prove  thai  the  theory  put 
forth  by  ('iccro  was  held  by  this  great  poet.  We  can 
not  be  certain,  however,  that  t he  line:,  possess  any  value 
as  evidence.  It  is  very  possible  that  Ennius  used  the 
word   "seem"   not    because    the   figures   of   the   dream 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  7 1 

lacked  clearness,  but  only  because  he  reflected  after- 
ward when  awake  that  they  lacked  substantial  reality, 
and  therefore  were  only  a  seeming,  however  clear. 
The  context  has  perished  and  left  us  in  ignorance  of 
the  meaning.  The  ancient  readers  of  Cicero  would  be 
in  no  doubt  on  this  subject,  for  from  the  one  quoted 
line  they  would  recall  the  entire  context. 

In  his  letter  to  his  brother  Ouintus,  I.,  2,  Cicero  re- 
cords the  arrival  at  Rome  of  Statins.  The  people, 
who  expected  to  behold  a  man  of  heroic  mold,  were 
disappointed  with  his  appearance.  After  this  state- 
ment there  follow  five  Creek  words,  of  no  significance 
in  themselves,  but  highly  significant  as  part  of  the  long 
passage  in  the  "Odyssey,"  IX.,  513,  in  which  Polyphe- 
mus expresses  his  disappointment  with  Ulysses,  the 
whole  of  which  Cicero  wishes  to  bring  to  the  mind  of 
his  brother. 

In  his  first  letter  to  Atticus,  Cicero  speaks  of  his 
candidacy  for  the  consulship,  and  says  that  his  ambi- 
tion to  gain  the  office  may  be  forgiven,  and  then  quotes, 
without  explanation,  the  "Iliad,"  XXII.,  159: 

No  common  victim,  no  ignoble  ox. 

We  can  only  conjecture  as  to  the  applicability  of  the 
line  to  the  case  of  Cicero,  till  we  turn  to  the  context, 
and  find  that  it  is  the  story  of  the  pursuit  of  Hector 
around  the  walls  of  Troy  by  Achilles,  who  ran  "  with 
fiery  speed"  because  the  prize  of  the  race  was,  "no 
common  victim,  no  ignoble  ox,"  but  a  great  warrior 
and  great  glory.  The  quotation  becomes  pregnant 
with  meaning  when  we  read  it  in  the  light  of  its  con- 
text, and  learn  that  the  race  of  Cicero  for  the  consul- 


72  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

ship  engaged  all  his  energies  because  the  prize  was  so 
worthy  of  his  utmost  endeavors. 

In  his  letter  to  Atticus,  II.,  25,  Cicero  instructs  his 
friend  to  say  for  him  some  complimentary  and  pleasing 
things  to  Varro,  who  was  then  in  power.  "  For,  as 
you  are  aware,"  he  adds,  "  he  is  of  a  singular  disposi- 
tion." Then  follow  three  Greek  words  from  a  furious 
speech  in  the  "  Andromache  "  of  Euripides,  denouncing 
the  Spartans  as  "crafty  in  counsel,  kings  of  liars,  con- 
coctors  of  evil  plots,  crooked,  and  thinking  nothing 
soundly,  but  all  things  tortuously."  The  three  words 
quoted  by  Cicero  are  designed  to  recall  the  whole  pas- 
sage, and  to  intimate  to  his  friend  that  it  is  as  good  a 
description  of  Varro  as  of  the  Spartans. 

He  continues  the  same  subject,  and  adds  :  "  But  I 
do  not  forget  this  precept."  Then  follow  three  Greek 
words,  which  of  themselves  express  no  precept  and 
make  no  sense.  They  are  the  opening  words  of  line 
393  of  the  "Phoenician  Maidens"  of  Euripides,  and 
are  designed  to  recall  the  whole  line,  which  is  a  pre- 
cept of  patience : 

It  is  necessary  to  bear  with  the  follies  of  those  in  power. 

In  his  sixteenth  letter  to  Atticus,  Cicero  speaks  of  a 
letter  from  his  friend  Ouintus,  and  says  that  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end  differed  widely.  He  then  throws  in 
three  Greek  words  : 

In  front,  a  lion;  but  behind — 

We  should  form  an  entirely  wrong  conception  of  his 
full  meaning  if  we  tailed  to  turn  to  Homer's  descrip- 
tion of  the  Chimaera.    the  whole  of  which  Cicero  in- 


FRAGMENTARY   QUOTATIONS  J2> 

tends  to  apply  to  the  letter  of  Ouintus  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  its  discordant  character. 

All  our  modern  literatures  are  so  full  of  these  frag- 
mentary quotations  that  it  seems  superfluous  to  pro- 
duce instances  from  them.  No  reader  can  fail  to  find 
examples  for  himself.  Perhaps  half  the  mottoes  at  the 
head  of  the  numbers  of  the  "  Spectator  "  are  of  this 
class. 

The  New  Testament,  in  presenting  to  us  a  few  such 
fragmentary  quotations,  shows  only  that  its  authors 
were  moved  by  instincts  and  complied  with  customs  of 
expression  common  to  all  writers  of  all  ages  and 
nations. 


IV 


EXEGETICAL    PARAPHRASE 

I  SHALL  consider  in  this  chapter  the  statement  that 
the  authors  of  the  New  Testament  sometimes  alter 
the  language  of  the  Old  with  the  obvious  design  of  aid- 
ing their  arguments.  The  principal  instances  of  this 
kind  which  have  been  adduced  are  Matt.  2:6;  3:3; 
1 1  :  10;  15  :  8,  9  ;  Luke  2  :  23  ;  John  2:17;  19  :  37  ; 
Acts  2  :  17-21  ;  7  :  42,  43.  Let  us  examine  these 
examples. 

At  Matt.  2  :  6,  Micah  5  :  2  is  quoted,  with  several 
changes  adapted  to  bring  out  the  real  meaning.  The 
prophet  writes  :  "  But  thou  Beth-lehem  Ephrathah, 
which  art  little  to  be  among  the  thousands  of  Judah, 
out  of  thee  shall  one  come  forth  unto  me  that  is  to  be 
ruler  in  Israel."  In  the  quotation  we  have  "  land  of 
Judah,"  instead  Ephrathah  "  ;  "  art  in  no  wise  least," 
instead  of  "art  little";  "princes,"  instead  of  "thou- 
sands "  ;  "  be  shepherd  of,"  instead  of  "  be  ruler  "  ;  with 
the  words  "for"  and  "my  people"  and  "a  governor," 
inserted,  and  the  words  "  unto  me  "  omitted.  Some  of 
these  changes  may  be  due  to  memory-quoting;  but 
others  are  clearly  excgetical.  Thus  the  word  "  Ephra- 
thah "  was  antique  and  obscure,  and  the  words  "  land  of 
Judah  "  took  its  place  as  an  explanation.  Further,  says 
Toy  : 

1  he  form  of  the  sentence  is  1  nan  fed  in  order  to  bring  out  what 
>n<  ei\  cd  to  be  the  prophet's  implied  thought,  that  Bethlehem, 

71 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  75 

though  insignificant  in  size,  had  been,  by  its  selection  to  be  the 
birthplace  of  the  Messiah,  raised  to  a  lofty  position  in  Israel  : 
hence  the  insertion  of  the  negative,  "  art  in  no  wise  least,"  and 
of  the  "for,"  to  show  that  the  following  assertion  contains  the 
ground  of  the  city's  greatness. 

This  in  fact  is  the  real  thought  of  the  prophet,  as  all 
interpreters  hold.  The  entire  passage  was  regarded  by 
the  Jews  as  Messianic,  as  we  see  here  and  at  John  7  : 
42,  and  in  the  Targum.  It  has  the  coloring  of  tem- 
poral victory  and  temporal  sovereignty,  because  these 
were  types  of  spiritual  blessings,  as  I  shall  show  in  our 
ninth  chapter.  The  substitution  of  "be  shepherd  of," 
for  "  be  ruler  in,"  is  made  in  order  to  give  the  substance 
of  the  next  verse  but  one  in  the  prophecy  :  "  He  shall 
stand,  and  shall  feed  his  flock  "  ;  and  it  illustrates  again 
the  manner  of  quoting  discussed  in  our  sixth  chapter. 

In  one  instance  an  alteration  made  by  the  Septuagint 
is  adopted  by  the  New  Testament  writer  apparently 
because  it  brings  out  clearly  the  relation  of  the  passage, 
as  a  prophecy,  to  its  fulfillment.  It  is  at  Matt.  3  :  3, 
where  Isa.  40  :  3  is  quoted  as  follows  : 

The  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness, 
Make  ye  ready  the  way  of  the  Lord, 
Make  his  paths  straight. 

Broadus  comments  on  this  quotation  as  follows  : 

In  the  Hebrew,  the  accents  indicate  and  the  parallelism 
proves,  that  "in  the  wilderness  "  belongs  to  "make  ye  ready 
and  so  the  Revised  version  of  Isaiah.  Matthew,  as  also  Mark 
and  Luke,  follows  the  Septuagint  in  connecting  that  phrase 
with  "crying,"  and  in  omitting  the  parallel  phrase  "in  the 
desert"  from  the  next  clause.  This  change  does  not  affect  the 
substantial  meaning,  and  it  makes  clearer  the  real  correspond- 


j6         QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

ence  between  the  prediction  and  the  fulfillment,  "preaching  in 
the  wilderness,"  verse  i,  "crying  in  the  wilderness,"  verse  3. 
It  might  without  impropriety  be  supposed  that  Matthew  himself 
altered  the  phraseology  to  bring  out  this  correspondence,  but  in 
many  similar  cases  it  is  plain  that  he  has  simply  followed  the 
familiar  Septuagint. 

At  Matt.  11  :  10,  Mark  1:2,  and  Luke  7  :  27,  is  a 
quotation  from  Mai.  3  :  1,  as  follows  : 

Behold  I  send  my  messenger  before  thy  face, 
Who  shall  prepare  thy  way  before  thee. 

Thus  the  New  Testament  speaks  in  the  third  person. 
But  in  the  original  passage  Jehovah  speaks  in  the  first 
person  :  "  Behold,  I  send  my  messenger,  and  he  shall 
prepare  the  way  before  me."  Thus  Jehovah  predicts 
that  he  himself  shall  come  to  Israel  after  first  sending 
a  herald  to  prepare  the  way,  according  to  Oriental  cus- 
tom. The  writers  of  the  New  Testament  held  that 
Johovah  really  came  in  Christ,  and  that  the  pre- 
diction of  the  advent  of  Jehovah  was  fulfilled  in  the 
advent  of  Christ,  and  they  introduced  such  verbal 
changes  in  the  passage  as  served  to  bring  out  its  real 
meaning,  saying  "thy  face,"  instead  of  "my  face,"  and 
"  thy  way,"  instead  of  "  a  way  before  me."  The  changes 
are  strictly  exegetical. 

At  Matt.  15  :  8,  9,  there  is  a  quotation  from  Isa.  2«)  : 
13,  with  the  adoption  of  a  change  effected  by  the  Sep- 
tuagint, apparently  because  it  sets  forth  more  clearly 
the  real  meaning  of  the  prophet  than  a  close  rendering 
or  his  language  would  have  done.  The  Hebrew  reads  : 
"And  tluir  fear  toward  me  is  the  commandment  of 
men,  taught."     That   is,   their  religion   is   merely  tra- 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  JJ 

ditional,  and  not  a  thing  derived  from  the  word  of  God 
and  their  own  experience  of  his  grace.  Instead  of  this, 
the  Septuagint  has,  "  But  in  vain  do  they  worship  me, 
teaching  precepts  of  men  and  teachings."  Matthew, 
and  also  Mark  (7  :  7),  slightly  modify  the  Septuagint, 
and  say, 

In  vain  do  they  worship  me, 

Teaching  doctrines  the  precepts  of  men. 

Says  Broadus  : 

This  not  only  improves  the  phraseology  of  the  Septuagint,  but 
brings  out  the  prophet's  thought  more  clearly  than  would  be 
done  by  a  literal  translation  of  the  Hebrew,  for  Isaiah  means  to 
distinguish  between  a  worship  of  God  that  is  taught  by  men,  and 
that  which  is  according  to  the  teaching  of  God's  word. 

At  Luke  2  :  23,  the  law  of  consecration  of  the  first- 
born of  males  is  quoted  from  Exod.  13  :  2,  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  explain  it.  The  law  is  this  :  "  Sanctify 
unto  me  all  the  first-born,  whatsoever  openeth  the  womb 
among  the  children  of  Israel,  both  of  man  and  of 
beast  :  it  is  mine."  In  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth  verses 
of  the  same  chapter  the  first-born  are  limited  to  the 
males,  and  in  quoting  the  earlier  verse,  Luke  brings 
the  word  "male  "  into  it  exegetically,  to  save  space  and 
express  the  real  meaning  of  the  passage. 

At  John  2  :  17,  Ps.  69  :  9  is  quoted  : 

The  zeal  of  thine  house  shall  eat  me  up. 

The  Hebrew  verb  is  in  the  perfect  tense,  as  is  also 
that  of  the  Septuagint  Greek,  while  the  evangelist,  ac- 
cording to  the  best  reading,  changes  it  to  a  future. 
This  is  paraphrase  to  express  the  real  meaning  of  the 


yS  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

quotation,  which,  like  many  other  parts  of  the  psalm, 
are  plainly  Messianic  and  hence  predictive.  The  change 
brings  out  the  predictive  character  of  the  passage. 

At  John  19  :  2,7 >  Zech.  12  :  10  is  quoted  as  follows  : 
"  Again  another  Scripture  saith,  They  shall  look  on 
him  whom  they  pierced."  The  prophet  wrote,  how- 
ever, "They  shall  look  unto  me  whom  they  have 
pierced."  It  was  God  who  spoke  through  the  prophet, 
declaring  that  the  Jews  had  pierced  him,  and  John 
would  teach  us  by  his  change  of  the  pronoun  that  it 
was  the  same  God  whom  they  pierced  on  the  cross, 
slaying  the  Messiah  through  the  agency  of  the  Roman 
soldier,  their  official  and  chosen  representative.  "  The 
evangelist,"  says  Wright,  "  is  not  quoting  the  passage 
in  the  words  of  the  prophet,  but  rather  giving  the  pur- 
port of  it  from  his  own  point  of  view."  He  expresses 
thus  his  identification  of  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament with  the  Christ  of  the  New.  That  the  passage 
is  a  prediction  of  the  event  to  which  the  evangelist  ap- 
plies it,  as  well  as  the  sufferings  of  Christ  in  the  larger 
sense,  is  evident  from  the  Hebrew  word  for  "  pierced," 
which  occurs  in  ten  other  places,  and  "  is  nowhere 
used,"  Wright  declares,  "except  in  the  literal  accepta- 
tion of  piercing  or  stabbing,  and  generally  to  the  effect 
of  slaying."  Also  the  verb  for  "mourn"  is  the  one 
which  "properly  expresses  mourning  for  the  dead." 

How  can  Jehovah  be  pierced?  This  question  has 
occasioned  great  difficulty,  which  writers  have  sought 
to  overcome  by  various  devices.  The  translation  of 
the  Septuagint,  "They  shall  look  to  me  because  they 
mocked,"  is  supposed  to  be  based  on  the  idea  that  the 
heart  of  Jehovah  was  pierced  by  the  unbelieving  words 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  79 

of  his  disobedient  people.  Calvin,  Rosenmiiller,  Ge- 
senius,  and  others,  refer  the  piercing  to  the  obstinate 
and  provoking  sins  of  the  nation,  a  metaphorical  sense 
which  the  Hebrew  word  nowhere  bears.  Keil  sup- 
poses the  angel  of  Jehovah  to  be  pierced,  instead  of 
Jehovah  himself  ;  but  for  this  guess  there  is  no  kind  of 
support.  Equally  conjectural  is  the  suggestion  of  Hit- 
zig,  that  Jehovah  identifies  himself  with  the  prophet, 
and  speaks  of  himself  as  pierced  because  Zechariah 
was  set  at  naught.  Toy  would  remove  the  difficulty 
by  translating  the  passage  thus  :  "  They  shall  look  to 
me  in  respect  to  him  whom  they  have  pierced ; "  that 
is,  "  the  people  of  Jerusalem  shall  exhibit  a  kindly  and 
prayerful  spirit  ;  and,  in  their  sorrow  for  their  slain 
brethren  of  Judah,  shall  look  to  me,  their  God,  for  com- 
fort." According  to  Wright,  Kimchi  and  others  have 
advocated  this  view.  But  all  these  violent  expedients 
are  unnecessary.  The  prophecy,  in  so  far  as  it  relates 
to  the  piercing,  was  strictly  fulfilled  in  Christ,  in  whose 
sufferings  and  death  Jehovah  wras  pierced.  That  part 
of  the  prophecy  which  relates  to  the  penitence  of  Israel 
is  yet  to  be  fulfilled,  when  "they  shall  look"  with 
mourning  "upon  him  whom  they  pierced." 

Toy  is  so  fully  assured  of  the  view  which  he  adopts 
that  he  makes  it  the  ground  of  an  adverse  criticism  of 
the  evangelist,  whose  "  reference  to  the  piercing  of 
Jesus1  side,"  he  says,  "is  based  on  a  translation  and 
exegesis  of  the  Hebrew  that  cannot  be  maintained." 
The  "translation  and  exegesis"  adopted  by  Toy,  how- 
ever, are  ignored  or  rejected  by  the  great  mass  of  He- 
brew scholars,  among  whom  I  may  mention  the  revisers 
of  the  English   Old  Testament,  Wright,  Meyer,  who 


So  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

calls  the  construction  "  tortuous,"  Chambers,  in  the 
Lange  commentaries,  Drake,  in  the  Speaker's  Com- 
mentary, Hengstenberg,  who  pronounces  the  theory  on 
which  it  is  based  "a  pure  invention  of  the  empirical 
grammarians,"  Briggs,  Calvin,  Rosenmuller,  Gill, 
Maurer,  Luthardt,  Hitzig,  Keil,  and  Ewald.  Toy 
seeks  to  support  his  construction  of  the  Hebrew  sen- 
tence by  an  appeal  to  Ewald's  Grammar. '  But  if  the 
rule  thus  referred  to  leads  to  the  construction  adopted 
by  Toy,  Ewald  himself  did  not  know  it,  for  in  his 
translation  and  commentary  he  gives  us  the  construc- 
tion found  in  the  Gospel  by  John,  though  not  the  pro- 
noun employed  there. 

The  exegesis  of  Toy  is  not  made  good,  even  by  his 
own  construction  of  the  sentence.  If  the  prophet 
means  that  the  Jews  shall  mourn  "  for  their  slain 
brethren  of  Judah,"  how  can  he  repeatedly  and  uni- 
formly employ  the  singular,  "  him,"  for  this  innumer- 
able multitude?  To  say  that  Israel  shall  "look  to  God 
in  respect  to  him  whom  they  pierced,"  and  shall 
"mourn  for  him,"  is  to  employ  inadequate  expressions, 
if  they  refer  to  the  sorrow  of  the  people  for  the 
slaughter,  not  of  one,  but  of  thousands. 

The  Common  version  of  Zechariah  reads :  "  They 
shall  look  upon  me."  The  Revised  version  has  "unto 
me."  The  Hebrew,  as  Toy  says,  may  mean  either. 
He  adds  that  "unto"  alone  is  applicable  here,  because 
the  speaker  is  Cod,  and  men  are  not  supposed  to  look 
"upon"  him,  but  only  "unto"  him  in  prayer.  The 
moment  we  regard  the  passage  as  a  direct    prophecy  of 

1   \  333,  a,  footnote  3. 


EXEGETICAE   PARAPHRASE  8 1 

Christ,  however,  this  objection  disappears  ;  for  men 
looked  "upon"  God  in  Christ,  who  himself  declared: 
"He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the  Father."  But, 
while  the  objection  of  Toy  to  the  translation  "upon" 
is  not  valid,  a  careful  consideration  of  the  meaning  of 
the  prophet  will  lead  us  to  prefer  "  unto."  The  "  look- 
ing "  of  which  he  speaks  is  not  mere  physical  gazing 
with  the  eyes  of  the  body  ;  it  is  spiritual ;  it  is  behold- 
ing in  penitence,  in  faith,  in  gratitude,  in  love ;  as  is 
evident  from  the  added  statement  that  "  they  shall 
mourn  for  him  as  one  mourneth  for  his  only  son." 
This  kind  of  looking  is  expressed  better  by  the  word 
"unto,"  than  by  the  word  "upon,"  as  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament phrase,  "looking  unto  Jesus."  But  if  "unto" 
is  used  in  the  passage  as  it  stands  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, it  should  be  used  in  the  passage  as  it  is  quoted 
in  the  Gospel  by  John.  The  Greek  expression,  exactly 
like  the  Hebrew,  is  one  that  may  mean  either  "upon  " 
or  "unto."  Our  revisers  have  created  an  unnecessary 
difference  between  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  by 
writing  "unto"  in  the  former  and  "upon  "  in  the  lat- 
ter. The  word  "  upon  "  in  the  Gospel  suggests  that 
the  evangelist  considered  the  prophecy  fulfilled  in  the 
mere  physical  gazing,  by  those  who  slew  Christ,  upon 
his  pierced  body.  But  the  Apostle  John,  the  greatest 
literary  genius  of  his  age,  profound,  poetic,  mystic, 
spiritual,  would  have  been  the  last  man  to  give  such  a 
shallow  interpretation  to  the  prophecy.  He  utterly 
abandons  the  Septuagint  form  of  it,  and  adheres  closely 
to  the  Hebrew,  from  which  he  departs  in  but  a  single 
word,  where  the  change  is  useful  as  an  exegesis  of  the 
passage.      But  his  close  adherence  to  the  Hebrew  and 


82  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

his  exegetical  change  of  this  single  word,  show  that  he 
had  studied  the  passage  carefully.  He  must  therefore 
have  understood  it  to  predict  the  repentance  of  those 
whose  sins  pierced  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul  of  the 
Son  of  God.  He  must  have  intended  to  find  in  it  an 
event  yet  in  the  future,  the  looking  of  the  Jews  in 
penitential  mourning  "  unto  him  whom  they  pierced." 
His  choice  of  a  Greek  expression  for  "unto"  which 
is  different  from  the  Septuagint,  and  exactly  coexten- 
sive with  the  Hebrew  expression  in  its  range  of  pos- 
sible meanings  in  the  connection  in  which  he  employs 
it,  is  still  another  evidence  of  his  care  in  translating 
and  interpreting  the  prophetic  sentence. 

To  sum  up  our  discussion.  The  exegesis  of  John  is 
based  on  a  straightforward  and  natural  construction  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  on  his  perception  of  the  divinity 
of  Jesus  ;  while  other  views  are  induced  by  a  certain 
reluctance  to  recognize  the  passage  as  a  direct  Mes- 
sianic prediction,  or  to  recognize  Jehovah  in  Christ  ;  or 
by  some  other  supposed  polemic  convenience.  If  we 
consider  the  passage  as  a  direct  prophecy  of  Christ, 
we  account  for  every  feature  of  it  ;  but  all  other  hy- 
potheses require  us  to  do  it  some  violence. 

The  quotation  at  Acts  2  :  17-21  of  Joel  2  :  28  32, 
illustrates  still  further  the  custom  of  changing  a  pas- 
sage to  bring  out  its  real  meaning.  The  apostle  places 
"  saith  God "  near  the  beginning  of  the  passage,  to 
call  attention  at  once  to  the  source  of  the  prophecy, 
;md  prepare  the  mind  to  listen  to  it  with  proper  rever- 
ence. The  prophet  has  "afterward,"  which  the  apos- 
tle changes  to  "in  the  last  days,"  a  phrase  that,  as 
Hackett  writes,  "denotes  always   in   the   New  Testa- 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  83 

ment  the  age  of  the  Messiah,  which  the  Scriptures 
represent  as  the  world's  last  great  moral  epoch."  The 
apostle's  phrase,  having  this  uniform  reference,  ex- 
plains the  real  sense  of  the  prophet's  phrase,  for  the 
passage  is  a  direct  prediction  of  the  Messianic  age,  to 
which  the  prophet  refers  when  he  says  "  afterward." 
The  other  changes  have  no  special  significance,  and  may 
be  the  result  of  the  memory-quoting  discussed  in  our 
second  chapter. 

The  last  of  these  passages  is  found  at  Acts  7  :  42, 
43,  where  Amos  5  :  25-27  is  quoted.  Instead  of  the 
Septuagint  reading,  "  the  figures  which  ye  made  for 
yourselves,"  Stephen  says,  "  the  figures  which  ye  made 
to  worship  them,"  thus  bringing  into  prominence  the 
real  sense  of  the  passage,  which  is  a  charge  of  idol- 
atry. Toy  says  that  the  substitution  of  "  beyond 
Babylon"  for  "beyond  Damascus  "  is  an  inadvertence, 
or  a  scribal  error,  which  arose  from  a  recollection  of 
the  Babylonian  captivity.  But  it  seems  to  me  only 
another  change  introduced  designedly  to  interpret  the 
passage.  When  Amos  wrote,  about  770  b.  c,  the 
Assyrians  were  but  little  known,  and  hence  the  prophet 
told  the  people  that  they  should  be  carried  away  "  be- 
yond Damascus,"  using  the  most  impressive  phrase 
which  they  would  be  able  to  understand.  When 
Stephen  quoted  the  passage,  he  could  do  so  in  the  light 
of  history ;  and  it  was  then  known  that  the  prophet 
had  referred  to  the  Babylonian  exile. 

From  our  examination  of  these  passages,  the  state- 
ment with  which  this  chapter  opens  is  amply  justified  ; 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  in  quoting  from  the 
Old,  sometimes  change  its  language  with  the  obvious  in- 


S4  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

tention  of  aiding  their  argument.  It  must  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  no  changes  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  inject- 
ing a  meaning  into  the  original  passage  ;  in  every  such 
case  the  New  Testament  writer  does  but  seek  to  bring 
out  more  clearly  the  real  thought  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment writer  ;  if  he  exchanges  one  word  or  phrase  for 
another,  he  does  so  for  exegetical  purposes  ;  and,  with- 
out exception,  the  view  which  he  takes  of  the  quota- 
tion is  justified  when  we  study  it  fairly  from  his  point 
of  view.  These  changes,  therefore,  are  aids  to  the 
understanding  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  well  as  to  the 
belief  of  the  New. 

Moreover,  these  changes  are  exactly  such  as  we  find 
in  all  literatures.  They  are  so  common  that  we 
■.give  them  a  special  name,  and  call  them  paraphrase. 
-J  Webster  defines  paraphrase  as  "  a  re-statement  of  a  text, 
passage,  or  work,  expressing  the  meaning  of  the  original 
in  another  form,  generally  for  the  sake  of  its  clearer  ami 
fuller  exposition."  Dryden  says  that  "  in  paraphrase 
the  author's  words  are  not  so  strictly  followed  as  his 
sense."  Wherever  we  find  paraphrase  in  literature, 
and  it  is  universal,  we  find  the  exact  parallel  of  the 
Scriptures  now  under  review. 

I  do  not  refer,  when  I  say  this,  to  the  many  volumes 
which  consist  wholly  of  paraphrase,  like  Stier's 
"Reden  Jesu,"  Geikie's  "Words  of  Christ,"  Erasmus' 
"  Paraphrase  of  the  Gospels,"  Tope's  ••  [Had,"  Trol- 
lope's  "  Commentaries  of  Caesar,"  and  Fallue's  "Ana- 
lyse kaisoniu'e."  I  shall  produce  numerous  instances 
strictly  like  those  of  the  New  Testament,  and  shall 

show  by  these  examples  that  it  is  a  common  custom  to 
quote  with  an  exegetical  change  of  language,  the  inser- 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  85 

tion  of  a  word  or  phrase,  or  the  substitution  of  one 
word  or  phrase  for  another,  to  bring  out  the-  sense 
which  the  writer  discovers  in  the  passage  quoted.  I 
shall  appeal  to  books  readily  accessible  to  the  reader, 
where  quotations  of  the  kind  now  before  us  are  so  nu- 
merous that  I  have  found  some  difficulty  in  limiting 
my  selection  and  choosing  those  which  I  reproduce 
rather  than  a  multitude  of  others  equally  pertinent. 

Mansel,  in  his  "  Limits  of  Religious  Thought,"  page 
55,  quotes  Luke  24  :  5,  6,  as  follows:  "Why  seek  ye 
the  living  among  the  dead  ?  Christ  is  not  here."  In 
the  same  work,  page  120,  he  quotes  Ps.  22  :  9,  as 
follows  :  "  Thou  art  he  who  took  me  out  of  my  mother's 
womb  :  thou  wast  my  hope  when  I  hanged  yet  upon  my 
mother's  breasts." 

Guthrie,  in  his  "  Gospel  in  Ezekiel,"  page  379,  quotes 
2  Cor.  12:9  in  this  form  to  show  clearly  that  the 
"weakness"  spoken  of  is  that  of  man:  "My  grace 
shall  be  sufficient  for  thee,  and  my  strength  made  per- 
fect in  your  weakness." 

Wayland,  in  his  "Moral  Science,"  page  157,  quotes 
Luke  17  :  9,  as  follows  :  "  Doth  he  thank  that  servant 
because  he  hath  done  the  things  that  were  commanded 
him  ?  I  suppose  not."  The  change  here  is  made  in 
order  to  bring  out  the  thought  obscured  to  the  com- 
mon reader  by  the  antique  verb  "  trow." 

Dr.  A.  J.  Gordon,  in  his  "  Ministry  of  Healing,"  page 
194,  quotes  Phil.  3:21,  omitting  the  phrase  "our  vile 
body,"  and  substituting  for  it  the  phrase  "the  body  of 
our  humiliation,"  thus  bringing  forth  the  real  meaning 
of  the  apostolic  writer:  "Who  shall  fashion  anew  the 
body  of  our  humiliation  that  it  may  be  conformed  to  the 

H 


86  QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

body  of  his  glory."  On  page  196  of  the  same  book,  he 
quotes  thus  from  the  Lord's  Prayer :  "  Deliver  us  from 
the  evil  one."  Both  these  exegetical  changes  were  to 
appear  two  years  later  in  the  Canterbury  revision. 

Sears,  in  his  "  Fourth  Gospel  the  Heart  of  Christ," 
has  many  such  exegetical  alterations.  On  page  272  he 
reproduces  in  the  following  form  the  words  uttered  by 
John  at  the  baptism  of  Christ  :  "  I  have  more  need  to 
be  baptized  by  thee."  On  page  309  the  words  spoken 
by  Christ  to  Nicodemus  appear  as  follows :  "  If  I 
tell  you  of  those  heavenly  things  you  will  not  be- 
lieve them,  for  you  do  not  understand  the  earthly 
things  that  represent  them  and  image  them  forth. 
You  stick  in  the  letter,  and  cannot  rise  out  of  it." 

Conybeare  and  Howson's  "  Life  and  Letters  of  St. 
Paul"  has  many  similar  examples  of  exegetical  para- 
phrase. Thus  on  page  6  of  Vol.  I.,  Ps.  147  :  20  is  re- 
produced in  the  following  form  :  "lie  dealt  not  so  with 
any  nation  ;  neither  had  the  heathen  knowledge  of  his 
laws."  In  the  same  volume,  page  42,  Ps.  yS  :  5-7 
appears  with  several  explanatory  alterations  : 

"The  Lord  made  a  covenant  with  Jacob,  and  gave 
Israel  a  law,  which  he  commanded  our  forefathers  to 
teach  their  children  ;  that  their  posterity  might  know 
it,  and  the  children  which  are  yet  unborn  ;  to  the  intent 
that  when  they  come  up  they  might  shew  their  children 
the  same;  that  they  might  put  their  trust  in  God,  and 
not  forget  the  works  of  the  Lord,  but  keep  his  com- 
mandments." 

In  the  same  volume,  page  54,  Ps.  122  14  is  quoted 
with   a  change  of   "unto  the  testimony  of   Israel  "  for 


EXEGETICAL  PARAPHRASE  87 

"to  testify  unto  Israel,"  which  the  writer  evidently  re- 
gards as  a  better  translation. 

Ruskin,  "Modern  Painters,"  Vol.  V.,  page  149,  re- 
produces Ps.  19  :  2-4  in  this  form,  making  it  express 
what  he  regards  as  its  real  meaning : 

"  Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech,  and  night  unto  night 
showeth  knowledge.  They  have  no  speech  nor  language, 
yet  without  these  their  voice  is  heard.  Their  rule  has 
gone  out  throughout  the  earth,  and  their  words  to  the 
end  of  the  world." 

The  writings  of  Dawson  are  full  of  these  paraphrases. 
In  "The  Origin  of  the  World,"  page  14,  he  gives  Heb. 
11:3  this  form  :  "  By  faith  we  understand  that  the 
ages  of  the  world  were  constituted  by  the  Word  of 
God,  so  that  the  visible  things  were  not  made  of  those 
which  appear."  On  page  100  of  the  same  book,  Gen. 
1  :  2  is  given  as  follows  :  "  And  the  earth  was  desolate 
and  empty,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  surface  of  the 
deep  ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  on  the  surface  of 
the  waters." 

Dr.  William  M.  Taylor,  in  his  "Daniel  the  Beloved," 
page  22,  quotes  Rom.  14  :  21,  inserting  the  words  "to 
do  "  as  exegetical  of  the  verse  :  "  It  is  good  neither  to 
eat  flesh,  nor  to  drink  wine,  nor  to  do  anything  whereby 
a  brother  stumbleth  or  is  made  weak."  On  page  133 
of  the  same  book,  he  quotes  Dan.  7:25,  and  intro- 
duces exegetically  the  word  "  two  "  :  "  And  they  shall 
be  given  into  his  hands  for  a  time,  two  times,  and  the 
dividing  of  time." 

The  great  sermon  of  Robert  Hall  on  "The  Senti- 
ments Proper  to  the  Present  Crisis,"  has  for  its  text 


88  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Jer.  8:6:  "I  hearkened  and  heard,  but  they  spake  not 
aright  :  no  man  repented  him  of  his  wickedness,  saying, 
What  have  I  done  ?  every  one  turned  to  his  course,  as 
the  horse  rusheth  into  the  battle."  On  the  second 
page  of  the  sermon,  the  text  is  quoted  with  a  change  of 
"rushed"  for  "turned."  The  change  is  made  in  order 
to  produce  a  more  vivid  impression  of  the  prophet's 
real  thought  :  "  Every  one  rushed  to  his  course  as  the 
horse  rusheth  into  the  battle." 

Farrar,  in  his  "Saintly  Workers,"  page  113,  quotes 
Rom.  13  :  14,  taking  out  the  words  "to  fulfill,"  and 
inserting  the  words  "  to  subdue,"  thus  completely  re- 
versing the  language  of  the  last  member  of  the  verse, 
though  still  preserving  its  meaning :  "  Put  ye  on  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  provision  for  the  flesh, 
to  subdue  the  lusts  thereof." 

I  could  produce  a  thousand  such  examples  of  exeget- 
ical  quotation  from  English,  German,  and  French  liter- 
ature. They  are  not  accompanied  by  any  explanation, 
or  even  by  any  reference  to  the  original  Hebrew  and 
Greek  ;  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  every  intelligent 
reader  is  familiar  with  the  Bible,  will  remark  the 
changes  for  himself,  and  will  understand  the  purpose 
of  the  author  in  making  them. 

I  now  present  a  few  examples  from  ancient  litera- 
ture, to  show  that  the  same  custom  was  known  in  the 
apostolic  age. 

Lysias,  in  his  funeral  oration  over  those  who  fell  at 
Salamis,  speaks  as  follows:  "Greece  might  well  on 
that  day  go  into  mourning  over  yonder  tomb,  and  la 
ment  for  those  that  lie  buried  there,  seeing  that  her 
own  freedom   and   their  valor  are  laid   together  in  one 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  89 

grave."  He  is  speaking  near  the  tomb,  and  points  to 
it.  Aristotle  quotes  the  sentence  in  his  "  Rhetoric," 
book  3,  chapter  10,  section  7.  But,  as  he  is  not  near 
the  tomb,  and  cannot  point  to  it,  he  alters  the  sen- 
tence in  order  to  explain  what  tomb  is  referred  to, 
and  makes  Lysias  say:  "Greece  might  well  go  into 
mourning  over  the  tomb  of  those  who  died  at  Salamis, 
for  her  freedom  and  their  valor  were  buried  in  one 
grave." 

In  his  treatise  on  "The  Contradictions  of  the  Stoics," 
section  47,  the  Stoic  whom  Plutarch  is  criticising  quotes 
Homer  as  saying: 

Receive  whatever  ill  or  good 
He  sends  to  each  of  you. 

Goodwin  translates  the  verses  thus,  and  appends  this 
note  :  "  The  words  '  or  good  '  are  not  found  in  Homer." 
The  lines  are  from  the  "  Iliad,"  XV.,  109,  and  constitute 
a  part  of  the  angry  speech  of  Juno  against  Jove.  She  tells 
the  assembled  gods  that  Jove  is  supreme,  that  resistance 
to  him  is  vain,  and  that  the  only  wise  course  is  to  re- 
ceive patiently  "  whatever  ill  he  sends  to  each."  This 
is  to  declare  that  Jove  is  the  absolute  dispenser  of 
events,  both  good  and  evil,  and  the  doctrine  that  he 
sends  whatever  good  any  one  receives  the  Stoic  regards 
as  implied  in  the  words,  and  as  needing  to  be  brought 
out  distinctly  by  his  exegetical  alteration,  which  also 
serves  to  show  the  relevancy  of  the  passage  to  the  ar- 
gument. 

In  Porphyry's  "  Life  of  Plotinus,"  section  22,  in 
quoting  the  thirty-fifth  line  of  Hesiod's  "Theogony," 
he  gives  it  as  follows  : 


90  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

But  why  do  I  speak  these  things  of  the  oak  or  the  rock  ? 
\4?2d  tit]  zaJjza  Tiepi  dpuv  -q  nepi  nerpinv  Xeyeiu ; 

But  the  word  "Xeyeev"  is  not  in  the  original.  Bouillet 
says  in  his  note  on  the  passage  :  "  The  word  is  implied 
in  the  verse  of  Hesiod,  and  Porphyry  has  expressed  it 
for  the  sake  of  clearness." 

Philo,  in  his  treatise  on  "The  Changes  of  Scripture 
Names,"  section  46,  runs  together  fragments  of  Gen. 
18  :  14  and  17  :  19,  and  changes  the  latter  fragment 
exegetically,  to  exhibit  his  view  of  its  meaning.  He 
has  been  saying  that  the  name  Sarah  stands  for  virtue 
or  wisdom,  and  the  name  Isaac  for  laughter,  or  the  joy 
that  produces  it,  and  he  now  quotes  God  as  declaring  : 
"And  at  that  time  shall  wisdom  bring  forth  joy  to 
thee." 

In  his  treatise  on  the  "Allegories  of  the  Sacred 
Laws,"  book  I.,  section  7,  in  the  course  of  an  argument 
to  show  that  holiness  pertains  to  the  character,  and  not 
to  mere  external  observances,  he  quotes  Num.  6  :  9. 
The  passage  really  refers  to  ceremonial  uncleanness 
from  contact  with  the  dead,  but  he  finds  in  it  a  deeper 
reference,  and  alters  it  accordingly :  "  If  a  sudden 
change  comes  over  him,  and  pollutes  his  mind,  he  shall 
no  longer  be  holy." 

In  the  same  treatise,  book  III.,  section  63,  he  argues 
that  the  soul  cannot  be  nourished  by  man,  but  only  by 
God,  and  quotes  as  evidence  the  words  of  Jacob  to 
Leah  in  Gen.  30  :  2,  as  follows,  transforming  them  to 
bring  out  the  meaning  which  he  believes  they  contain  : 
■•I  1 1  on  1 1.1  st  greatly  erred  ;  for  I  am  nol  in  the  place  of 

God,  who  alone  is  able  to  open  the  womb  of   the  soul." 


EXEGETICAL   PARAPHRASE  91 

The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament  presents  ex- 
egetical  paraphrase  among  its  most  prominent  features. 
"Generally,"  writes  Churton,  "the  didactic  portions  of 
the  Apocrypha  may  be  regarded  as  a  collection  of  par- 
aphrases upon  passages  of  Holy  Scripture,  or  of  re- 
flections upon  them." 


COMPOSITE    QUOTATIONS 

THE  writers  of  the  New  Testament  sometimes  present 
in  the  form  of  a  single  passage  an  assemblage  of 
phrases  or  sentences  drawn  from  different  sources. 
The  following  are  all  the  instances  of  this  kind  which 
Toy  adduces  : 

Matt.  21  :  13;  Mark  11  :  17;  Luke  19  146;  from 
Isa.  56  :  7  and  Jer.  7:11.  Luke  1:17;  from  Mai. 
3  :  1  and  4  :  5,  6.  Acts  1  :  20  ;  from  Ps.  69  :  25  and 
109  :  8.  Rom.  9  :  25,  26;  from  Hosea  2  :  23  and  1  : 
10.  Rom.  9  :  33  ;  10  :  11;  from  Isa.  28  :  16  and  8  : 
14.  Rom.  11:8;  from  Isa.  29  :  10  and  Deut.  29  :  4. 
Rom.  11  :  26,  27  ;  from  Isa.  59  :  20,  21  and  27  :  9.  2 
Cor.  6  :  16;  from  Lev.  26  :  11,  12  and  Ezek.  Z7  '■  27- 
Gal.  3:8;  from  Gen.  12:3  and  18  :  18. 

Thus  there  are  but  few  of  these  composite  quotations 
in  the  New  Testament. 

An  examination  of  these  passages  will  show  that 
where  the  quotation  is  intended  for  proof,  it  is  always 
composed  oi  fragments  which  originally  related  to  the 
subject  of  the  argument;  and  all  of  them  except  one 
or  two  are  brought  forward  as  proofs.  An  example  of 
this  kind  is  found  in  the  appeal  which  our  Lord  made 
to  the  Old  Testament  to  justify  his  expulsion  of  the 
traders  from  the  temple,  Matt.  21  :  \\\  Mark  11  :  17; 
Luke  19  :  46.  He  exclaimed:  •'  It  is  written,  My 
92 


COMPOSITE   QUOTATIONS  93 

house  shall  be  called  a  house  of  prayer  :  but  ye  make 
it  a  clen  of  robbers."  The  first  half  of  the  quotation  is 
from  Isa.  56  :  7,  and  the  second  from  Jer.  7:11.  In 
both  places  the  theme  of  the  prophets  is  the  temple 
and  its  right  uses,  so  that  the  two  members  of  the  sen- 
tence are  fitly  united.  In  Mark,  the  first  member  is 
quoted  in  full :  "  My  house  shall  be  called  a  house  of 
prayer  for  all  the  nations."  It  is  probable  that  our  Lord 
quoted  it  in  this  form  ;  for  the  dealers  had  their  stalls 
in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  thus  especially  hindering  the 
prayers  of  foreigners.  There  were  two  offenses  :  first, 
the  turning  the  house  of  prayer  into  a  house  of  mer- 
chandise, where  cunning  and  chicane  held  rule,  which 
is  kept  in  mind  chiefly  by  Matthew  and  Luke  ;  and 
secondly,  the  obstruction  of  Gentile  worship,  which 
Mark  couples  with  the  other. 

Some  of  the  composite  quotations  will  meet  us  in  the 
other  chapters  of  this  book,  where  those  few  of  them 
which  have  been  made  the  ground  of  special  objections 
will  be  studied. 

Censure  of  a  general  kind  has  been  passed  on  all 
these  quotations,  simply  because  they  are  composite ; 
and  in  this  chapter  I  shall  answer  the  objection  by 
showing  that  they  follow  a  custom  common  to  all 
ancient  literatures. 

Thus  Plato,  in  his  "Ion,"  section  538,  quotes  the 
"  Iliad"  as  follows  : 

"  Made  with  Pramnian  wine ;  and  she  grated  cheese 
of  goat's  milk  with  a  brazen  knife,  and  at  his  side 
placed  an  onion,  which  gives  relish  to  drink." 

There  are  no  such  successive  lines  in  Homer ;  as  a 


94  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

whole,  the  extract  is  formed  by  Plato  himself  out  of 
two  passages,  "  Iliad,"  XL,  638,  630.  Yet  the  quota- 
tion is  quite  correct,  as  both  passages  refer  to  the  same 
thing;. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 
Line  638. 
'£v  rai  pa  a(fi  xuxqae  yuurj, 
eixu7a  OzfjOtv, 

Line  630. 

ydlxecov  xdueov  im  de  xpo- 

fX'JOU,  710TW   OipOV. 


THE    QUOTATION. 
Oii>CfJ  -oaiVsZiit)  i~c  S1  axjtiov 

xv7t  xopbv 
xvjjatt  yahd-fr  itapa  us  xpo- 

jMJOU  7ZOTW   Ol/>OU. 


In  the  "  Republic,"  book  III.,  section  3S9,  Plato  quotes 
from  Homer  as  follows  : 

The  Greeks  marched,  breathing  prowess, 
In  silent  awe  of  their  leaders. 

The  first  clause  of  this  sentence  is  from  book  III.,  line 
8,  of  the  "Iliad";  and  the  second  from  book  IV., 
line  431. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

* ' laav  fiivea  nveiovre^ Ayaeoi, 
arpt  oi'MUKi-  OTjfidvropac. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 
Book  III.,  line  8. 

01  o  dip  i'aav  aeffi  pivea  ~vzl- 

ovzzz;  Wyji.'jH. 

Book  IV.,  line  431. 

-ipj    detdcotez   arjfidyTopaz' 
dpupt  de  naacv. 

In  the  "  Republic,"  book  III.,  section  391,  Plato  quotes 
Achilles  as  savin--  to  Apollo:  "Thou  hast  wronged 
me,  O  far-darter,  most  abominable  of  deities.     Verily  I 


COMPOSITE   QUOTATIONS 


95 


would  be  even  with  thee,  if  I   had  only  the  power." 
This  is  from  the  "  Iliad,"  book  XXII.,  lines  15  and  20. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Line  15. 

"EfiXcupdz  p\  'Exdepye,  decov 

dXoojzazs  -dvztov. 

Line  20. 

9 H  a  dv  ztaaifjj/jv,  el'  pot  duva- 

[iiq  ye  Ttepeirj. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

* Efihup&z   p    kxdspye,   decov 
dXoforare  ndvxcov 

Yj  a  dv  zaralpqv,  el'  pot  ouva- 
piq  ye  -apebq. 


In  Xenophon's  "  Memorabilia,"  book  I.,  chapter  2, 
section  58,  the  lines  quoted  are  from  the  "  Iliad,"  II. f 
188  and  following,  and  198  and  following. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Lines  188,  189,  190,  191. 

v  Ovztva  pkv  ftom),YjO.  xal  i£o- 

yov  dvopa  xtyebq, 
zbv  oT  ayavdlz,  iTikeoatv  ipyzu- 

aaaxe  itapaxndz' 
Jatpbvt\  ou  ae  iocxe  xaxbv  a>z 

deto'taaeodar 
dXX  auroz  re  xddqcro  xal  aX- 

Xovz  I'dpue  Xao'j^. 

Lines  198,  199,  200,  201,  202. 
a0v  d3  ah  drjpoo  z  avopa  loot 

j3od(ouzd  t  itpe'jpot, 
zbv  axrjTizpiu  DAeaaxev  bpox- 

fyaaoxe  ze  piuduf 
Aatpjovi ',    dzpipac    'r)ao,    xal 

dXJuov  podov  dxoue, 


THE    QUOTATION. 

"  Ovztva  pkv  fiaattfa  xal  iqoyov 

avopa  xtyebq, 
zbv  o'  dyavolc,  eTiieootv  ipqzu- 

aaaxe  zcapaazdz,' 
oatpovt\  06  ae  iotxe  xaxbv  a>z 

ozcoiaaeodat, 
cUA'  a.bzoQ  ze  xddqao  xal  dX- 

Xouq  i'dpue  XaouQ. 
cr  Ov  0   ah  orjpou  z^  dvopa  loot 

fiobtovzd  z   icpeupot, 
zbv  axfj-zpcp  iXdaaaxev  bpox- 

Xyjoaoxe  ze  poOcp- 
oatpbvt\    dzpipa^    rjao,    xal 

dXXcov  ixudov  dxoue, 


96 


QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 


oc   oso   (pepT&pot    scar    <tj  o 
dzTohftoc  xai  dvahuz, 

OUTS.  7TOT     iv    TZO/J/JLtp    Ivap'lO- 
fjuoz  out    ivc  fio'J/Sj. 


oc  fTso  tpeprepot  scar  ao  o 
aTCToXepoQ  y.ai  dvaXxcc, 

outs  Tror'  iv  TtoXifiuj  iuaoiO- 
[icoz  o6t   ivl  fioo/Sj. 


In  Lucian's  "  Charon,"  section  22,  the  five  lines  from 
Homer  run  together  as  a  continuous  passage  are,  as 
Jacobitz  says, '  "  brought  together  from  various  places, 
'Iliad,'  IX.,  319,  320  ;  'Odyssey,'  X.,  521  ;  XL,  539." 


THE    ORIGINAL. 
«'  Iliad,"  IX.,  319,  320. 

'Ev  de  c7j  Tc/r/j  ijfiev  xaxbc;  9/de 

xai  ia/)/.n'- 
xdrdav  o/idj^  o  t  depybz  dvhp 

o  re  itoXXa  iopydn;. 

"Odyssey,"  X.,521. 

IJoXXu  os  youvouadcu  vr/.jiov 
Afi&vrjvd  xdp/jva, 

"Odyssey,"  XL,  539. 

(potTa  fiaxpd  ficficoaa  xo.t  datfo- 
dsXbv  Xeeutova. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Kdzdav    btuoc  0  t    &TDfifto$ 

durjp  oc  r'  i?JM%s  T'J/ij3ou, 
iv   ds    r/j   Tc//.fj    ~ l[>oz   xpsUov 

t     Wyo.u.stixnov 
BspaizTj  o   laoc   Hstcoo~  zdcz 

ijbxbfxoto. 
IJdvT&z  d  eioiv  bfitoz  vexuarn 

dptevyvd  xdpr/va, 
yu/ivoi  ts  ^Tjpoi  zs  xar'  daco- 

dsXbu  Xsitwjva. 


In    Lucian's   "Timon"  we  have  a  poetic  quotation 
which  Tooke  has  translated  as  follows  : 

< )  gold,  supreme  delight  of  mortal  eyes  ! 
Like  the  flickering  flame  thou  shinest  bright, 
Resplendent  thou  by  day  and  night  ! 

The  first  line  is  from  Euripides,  "  Fragments,"  288  ; 
and  the  rest  is  a  defective  citation  from  the  opening  of 
Pindar's  first  I  Olympic  ode. 

1  Jacobitz'  "  l  .u(  ian,"  Vol.  1.,  p.  39. 


COMPOSITE   QUOTATIONS 


97 


THE    QUOTATION. 

' Q  Xf»J<re,  osqitopa  xdKXcorov 

acOopsuuv  yap  nop  are  dia- 
npsnscQ  xai  vuxTtop  xai  psff 
■qpspav. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Euripides. 

Ti?  ypuak,  os^itopa  xdXJ.coTov 

ftpoToT^. 

Pindar. 
AldbflSVOV  TTUp 

civs  ota.TZps7ist  uoxrc  psydvopoc, 
iqa-^a  nXoOzoo. 

In  his  treatise  on  "  Progress  in  Virtue,"  section 
ii,  Plutarch  quotes  inexactly  two  lines  from  Homer, 
and  treats  them  as  a  single  sentence.  The  first  is  from 
the  "Odyssey,"  VI.,  187,  and  the  second  from  the 
«  Odyssey,"  XXIV,  402. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

VI.,  187. 

Eslv-   insi    outs   xaxcp   out 

afpovi  (pcori  iorxa^. 

XXIV.,  402. 

OuXs  re  xai  pdXa  %oiipe,  @eoc 

as  rot  oXfica  oolsv. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

'Enei  outs  xaxw  out  aypovt 

ip  cot  i  ioixaq, 
ouXs  ts  xai  psya  yjups,  dzol 

vu  Tot  oXflia  oolsv. 


In  his  "Conjugal  Precepts,"  section  38,  Plutarch 
quotes  two  lines  from  Homer,  making  a  single  sentence 
of  them.     They  are  from  the  Iliad,  XIV.,  205  and  209. 


THE    ORIGINAL. 

Line  205. 

Kai  ay  dxpaa  vsixsa  Xuaco. 

Line  209. 

Ei$  suvrjv  dvs.aa.ifu  bpcodQvac 

cpdoTYjTC. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

Kai  ay  dxpira  vsixsa  XJjoco 
sc<:  suvyjv  dvsaaaa  bpcodr^vac 


9©  QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

In  his  "  Consolation  to  Apollonius,"  section  30,  Plu- 
tarch quotes  three  lines  from  Homer,  making  a  single 
sentence  of  them.  The  first  and  second  are  from  the 
"  Iliad,"  XXIII.,  222  ;  the  last  from  the  "  Iliad," 
XVII.,  37- 


THE    ORIGINAL. 
XXIII.,  222. 

'  Qz  os  Ttazyjp  oh  7tcudb$  udO- 

perac  dazia  xauois, 
v'j/i<fcou,  oars  Oavcov  osdo'j~ 

dxdy/jas.  roxfjai;. 
XVII.,  37. 
sAp~qtbv  3k   roxeuat  ybov  ~/.ai 

Ttsvdo;  idrjxa;. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

CJ?C  "?  rcarinp  ou  izcudoQ  ddups- 

zat  oazso.  xauou 
wpupiou,  bz  r;  Hanoi*  bsdwjz 

dxd%yae  zoxy/.z, 
dofr/jzov   bs  roxeuert  ybov  xai 

nevdoQ  idrjxe. 


In  his  "  Consolation  to  Apollonius,"  section  26,  Plu- 
tarch quotes  Homer  as  saying  : 

Whilst  others  may  lament  with  weeping  eyes, 
The  darkness  of  the  night  doth  them  surprise. 

This  is  Goodwin's  translation.  The  line  in  Plutarch  is 
made  up  partly  from  the  "Iliad,"  XXIII.,  109,  and 
partly  from  the  "Odyssey,"  I.,  423. 


Till-.    ORIGINAL. 
"  Iliad,"  XXIII.,  109. 
MupOfi&VOtfft    os    zola:    <p&VTt 
bododdxTuXoz  '  ll«>:. 
ley,"  I.,  423. 
To7(Ti  os   zso~ou.svoun   ushi.z 


In 


)Xdev. 


THE    QUOTATION. 


1/ 


vpOflSVOtOt     os    zota:    ris/.a: 

im  sozsno;  IjXde. 


COMPOSITE   QUOTATIONS 


99 


In  the  dissertation  of  Maximus  Tyrius  on  ''The  In- 
stability of  Pleasure,"   the   following  lines   occur  as   a 
single  sentence.      I  adopt  Taylor's  translation  : 
Where  rain  and  raging  tempest  are  unknown, 
But  a  white  splendor  spreads  its  radiance  round. 

They  are  from  the  "  Odyssey  "  ;  the  first  part  is  from 
IV.,  566,  and  the  second  from  VI.,  44. 

THE    ORIGINAL. 

IV.,  566. 

Ou  vupszbz,   out    dp  yztptov 

tzoXuc,  OUTS  7TOT    OptftpO£. 
VI.,  44. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

v E  ud"  dux  sot  out  dp  ysipcov 

7TO/.UZ,   OUTS  TIOT    Opftpq) 

deuezac  alia  pdX  didp'q 
Tte7iTo.Tac   d.ve(psXo<;,   teuxy  3' 
i7Tcdidpop$u  acyky. 


Jsustcu  outs    yio>\>  iTtcKikva- 

Tac,  alia  pdX  didpr] 
TCSTiTaTai  av£<pelo!Z,   Isuxrj   d' 

imdidpopsu  aiiyhj. 

In  Cicero's  "  De  Oratore,"  book  II.,  section  80,  the 
second  quotation  is  from  the  "  Andria "  of  Terence. 
"The  line,"  says  Wilkins, '  is  made  up  of  the  first  half 
of  verse  1 17  and  the  latter  part  of  verse  128."  A  part 
of  verse  129  also  is  used. 


THE  ORIGINAL. 
Verse  117. 

Effertur  ;  imus.      Interea 
inter  muheres, 

Verses  128  and  129. 

Procedit  ;  sequimur  ;  ad  se- 
pulcrum  venimus  ; 

In  ignem  posita  est  ;  fletur, 
Interea  haec  soror. 


THE  QUOTATION. 

Effertur,    imus,    ad    sepul- 

crum  venimus, 
In  ignem  imposita  est. 


1  Wilkins's  "  De  Oratore,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  355,  note 


IOO       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

In  the  fifty-third  letter  of  Seneca  he  describes  a 
voyage  during  which  he  suffered  so  much  from  sea- 
sickness that,  when  the  vessel  came  near  its  landing, 
he  sprang  into  the  water  and  waded  ashore,  not  waiting 
"till,"  as  Virgil  says  : 

Obvertunt  pelago  proras  aut  anchora  de  prora  jaciatur. 
They  turn  the  prow  or  cast  anchor. 

The  first  part  of  the  line,  "  Obvertunt  pelago  proras," 
is  from  the  "/Eneid,"  VI.,  3,  and  the  second,  "  anchora 
de  prora  jaciatur,"  from  the  same  poem,  III.,  277. 

In  his  eighty-second  letter  Seneca  quotes  Virgil  as 
saying : 

Ossa  super  recumbans  antro  semesa  cruento 
yEternum  latrans  exsangues  territat  umbras. 

The  first  of  these  lines  is  from  the  "/Eneid,"  VIII., 
297,  and  the  second  from  another  book  of  the  same 
poem,  VI.,  401. 

Philo  gives  us  some  instances  of  composite  quota- 
tion. 

In  his  treatise  entitled,  "  Who  is  the  Heir  of  Di- 
vine Things,"  section  5,  he  cites  Moses  as  saying : 
"  From  whence  am  I  to  get  flesh  to  give  to  all  this 
people,  because  they  cry  unto  me?  Shall  sheep  and 
oxen  be  sacrificed,  or  shall  all  the  fish  of  the  sea  be 
collected  together  to  satisfy  them?"  This  quotation. 
apparently  a  continuous  speech  of  Moses,  is  composed 
of  sentences  from  two  different  speeches,  found  in 
*°  Num.  11-13  ancl  22  y\s  the  two  speeches  were  made 
concerning  the  same  matter,  there  was  no  impropriety 
in  bringing  the  purport  of  both  before  the  reader  by 
thus  joining  together  a  few  brief   extracts. 


COMPOSITE   QUOTATIONS  IOI 

In  the  same  treatise,  section  46,  he  runs  together 
fragments  of  Gen.  18  :  14  and  17  :  19  :  "And  at  that 
time  wisdom  shall  bring  forth  joy  to  thee,"  putting 
wisdom  for  Sarah  and  joy  for  Isaac,  according  to  his 
custom  of  turning  the  Scriptures  into  allegory. 

In  his  treatise  on  "  The  Changes  of  Scripture 
Names,"  section  35,  he  runs  together  as  a  quotation 
parts  of  Gen.  32  :  25  and  31  :  "The  broader  part  of 
his  thigh  became  torpid,  on  which  he  was  lame." 

In  his  treatise  on  "  The  Allegories  of  the  Sacred 
Laws,"  book  III,  section  3,  he  runs  together  parts  of 
Num.  5  :  2,  3  and  Deut  23  :  1  : 

Let  them  send  forth  from  the  holy  soul  every  leper, 
and  every  one  afflicted  with  foul  disease,  and  every  one 
who  is  impure  in  his  soul,  both  male  and  female,  and 
all  mutilated  persons,  and  all  those  who  are  emascu- 
lated, and  all  whoremongers. 

These  composite  quotations,  though  more  common 
in  ancient  literature,  are  found  also  in  modern.  Thus 
in  Conybeare  and  Howson's  "  Life  and  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul,"  Vol.  I.,  page  54,  are  the  two  following  in- 
stances not  accompanied  by  any  references  or  any  word 
of  explanation  : 

"  Thither  the  tribes  go  up,  even  the  tribes  of  the  Lord  : 
to  testify  unto  Israel,  to  give  thanks  unto  the  name  of 
the  Lord.  There  is  little  Benjamin,  their  ruler,  and  the 
princes  of  Judah,  their  council,  the  princes  of  Zebu- 
Ion  and  the  princes  of  Napthali :  for  there  is  the  seat 
of  judgment,  even  the  seat  of  the  house  of  David." 
"Our  feet  shall  stand  within  thy  gates,  O  Jerusalem. 
O  pray  for  the  peace  of  Jerusalem  :  they  shall  prosper 
that  love  thee      Peace  be  within  thy  walls  :  and  plen- 


102        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

teousness  within  thy  palaces  ;  O  God,  wonderful  art 
thou  in  thy  holy  places  :  even  the  God  of  Israel.  He 
will  give  strength  and  power  unto  his  people  !  Blessed 
be  God." 

Thus  also  Ruskin  in  his  "  Modern  Painters,"  Vol.  V., 
page  146,  has  the  following  as  a  quotation  from  the 
Psalms:  "How  love  I  thy  law !  It  is  my  meditation 
all  the  day.  Thy  testimonies  are  my  delight  and  my 
counsellors  ;  sweeter  also  than  honey  and  the  honey- 
comb." All  these  phrases  may  be  found  in  the  Psalms, 
and  all  relate  to  one  subject,  and  the  great  critic  fol- 
lowed the  best  literary  precedents  in  throwing  them  to- 
gether as  a  continuous  passage. 


VI 

QUOTATIONS    OF    SUBSTANCE 

IN  a  few  instances  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
give  us  as  quotations  from  the  Old,  sentences 
which  it  does  not  contain.  If  this  method  of  quoting 
seems  strange  to  us,  it  was  well  known  in  the  apostolic 
age,  and  I  cite  the  following  instances  of  it  from 
Greek  and  Latin  literature. 

In  his  "  Nicomachean  Ethics,"  book  X.,  chapter  2,  sec- 
tion 3,  Aristotle  quotes  Plato  at  some  length,  begin- 
ning with  the  words :  "  The  life  of  pleasure,  says  Plato, 
is  more  desirable  with  wisdom  than  without  wisdom." 
Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire  writes,  in  his  note  on  the 
passage  :  "  This  is  not  a  textual  citation  of  Plato ;  it  is 
only  a  condensed  statement  of  his  theory." 

In  his  "Rhetoric,"  book  III.,  chapter  4,  section   1, 
Aristotle  quotes  Homer  as  saying  of  Achilles  : 
He  rushed  on  like  a  lion. 

'lis  8e  Aeuf  inopovaev. 

These  words  are  not  in  Homer ;  but,  as  Cope  says, 
'•'all  the  substance  is  there."  The  reference  is  to  the 
long  description  of  the  lion  in  the  "  Iliad,"  XX.,  begin- 
ning at  164. 

At  the  opening  of  chapter  five  of  his  "  Delay  of  the 
Divine  Justice,"  Plutarch  writes  : 

But  first  see  how,  as  Plato  says,  God,  making  himself  con- 
spicuous as  the  example  of  all  things  good,  bestows  human  vir- 
ion 


104       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

tue,  in  some  sort  his  own  likeness,  on  those  who  are  able  to  be 
followers  of  God. 

Hackett  has  this  note  on  the  passage  : 

The  sentiment  here  ascribed  to  Plato  is  not  found,  in  so  many 
words,  in  any  passage  of  his  writings,  but  is  consonant  with 
what  he  has  taught  in  various  places.  This  mode  of  quotation 
is  not  uncommon  in  Plutarch,  nor  is  it  unnatural  in  any  writer. 
It  should  not  have  excited  so  much  surprise  that  the  writers  ot 
the  New  Testament  have  occasionally  alluded,  in  like  manner, 
to  predictions  as  existing  in  the  Old  Testament,  which  are  not 
found  there  verbally,  but  in  sense  only.  Of  this  class,  as  I 
understand  it,  is  the  prophecy  referred  to  in  Matt.  2  :  23. 

Epictetus  writes,  chapter  XXVIII.,  near  the  begin- 
ning : 

As  Plato  affirms:  The  soul  is  unwillingly  deprived  of  truth. 

"  This,"  says  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson,  in  a  note 
to  his  translation  of  the  sentence,  "  is  not  a  literal 
quotation  from  Plato,  but  similar  passages  are  to  be 
found  in  his  'Laws,'  IX.,  5;  'Sophist,'  section  29; 
'Protagoras,'  section  Sj,  etc."  Thus,  the  sentiment  of 
several  long  passages  is  gathered  up  and  presented  in 
a  single  brief  saying. 

Maximus  Tyrius,  Dissertation  XXII.,  the  first  para- 
graph, quotes  as  from  the  "  Odyssey  "  the  line  : 

Self-taught  am  I  ;  the  gods  impart  the  song. 

No  such  line  is  anywhere  in  Homer;  but  a  sentiment 
like  thai  which  it  expresses  is  found  in  the  "Odyssey," 
XXII.,  347,  of  which  the  quotation  is  a  reminiscence, 
chiefly  in  Other  words. 

Lucian,   in  his  "  Defence  of  the  Portraits,"  si 


QUOTATIONS   OF  SUBSTANCE  1 05 

28,  refers  to  "  the  prince  of  philosophers,"  by  which 
term  only  Plato  could  be  designated,  as  teaching  that 
"  man  is  an  image  of  the  deity."  No  such  words  are 
to  be  found  in  Plato,  or,  indeed,  in  the  whole  library  of 
the  Greek  philosophers.  Something  distantly  resem- 
bling the  sentiment  is  found  in  the  First  and  Second 
"Alcibiades  "  and  in  the  "  Republic  "  ;  and  Lucian,  living 
at  a  time  when  Christian  truth  was  beginning  to  per- 
meate the  atmosphere,  summed  up,  almost  in  the  lan- 
guage of  Holy  Scripture,  the  vague  guesses  of  the 
greatest  of  the  pagan  thinkers  concerning  the  nature  of 
the  soul.  If  the  reader  wishes  to  learn  what  search  has 
been  made  in  Greek  literature  for  the  declaration  which 
Lucian  quotes,  let  him  consult  the  edition  of  Hem- 
sterhuys,  Vol.  VI.,  p.  420,  the  last  note  on  the  page. 

In  the  first  "Ennead"  of  Plotinus,  book  IV,  section 
16,  is  this  :  "  Plato  was  right  when  he  said  that  if  one 
would  be  wise  and  happy,  he  must  receive  the  good 
from  above,  must  look  toward  it,  must  become  like  it, 
must  live  according  to  it."  These  words  are  not  in 
Plato  ;  but  the  sentiment  is  found  in  various  places,  as 
the  "Theaetetus,"  section  176,  the  "  Phaedo,"  section 
42,  the  "  Republic,"  book  VI.,  section  509,  and  book 
X.,  section  613,  the  "  Laws,"  book  IV.,  section  716. 

THE    QUOTATION. 

'  Oodcoz  yap  xai  IlXdrcov  ixacdev  to  dyadbv  d^cot  Xatiftavstv, 
xai  Ttpbz  ixs7vo  fiXenecv  xbv  jxkXkovxa  aoybv  xat  eudaijuova 
iaeada:  xai  ixeivuj  b;xoco~jadat  xai  xax   ixsivo  CfjV. 

In  the  third  "Ennead"  of  Plotinus,  book  III.,  sec- 
tion 4,  he  quotes  Plato  as  saying  :  "  The  soul  is  brought 
into  other  animals  after  it  has  changed  its  nature,  and 


106       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

the  reason  has  altered  itself  in  order  to  become  the 
soul  of  an  ox,  which  before  was  the  soul  of  a  man." 
This  sentence  is  not  in  Plato,  but  is  a  general  summary 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  "Timaeus,"  section  42. 

THE    QUOTATION. 

a  OOvj  xal  scz  zd  d/Mx  ("wa,  (f'^ccu,  ecaxoivsada:,  dlov  d)2r^ 
rife  <l'vyj^  yBVOftevrj^^  xal  kreoouotUvro^  rou  Xoyoo,  eva  fiv- 
YjZac  </'oyy  jSooc,  yj  izporepov  -JjU  &vdpa)7toc. 

In  the  sixth  "  Ennead  "  of  Plotinus,  book  VIII.,  sec- 
tion 6,  writing  of  the  human  passions,  he  quotes  from 
Plato  as  follows  :  "  These,  he  says,  are  corrected  by 
habit  and  exercise."  This  sentence  is  not  in  Plato, 
but  it  is  a  statement  in  other  words  of  a  sentiment  ex- 
pressed at  much  length  in  the  "  Phaxlo,"  sections  79  to 
83- 

THE    QUOTATION. 

ToJko.  yap  sows,  <prjoiv,  ifjfU^  re  rsrVsrv  rob  acoixaro^ 
edeac  xal  u.a/^aiai  xaropdtoOi^za. 

In  his  fortieth  letter  Julian  writes  to  Jamblichus  : 
"  I  am  not  such  a  wretch  as  not  to  prefer  you,  as  Pin- 
dar says,  to  all  my  affairs."  There  are  no  such  words 
in  Pindar,  and  the  reference  is  to  the  opening  lines  of 
the  first  Isthmian  ode  : 

Your  business,  golden-shielded  Thebes, 
To  all  my  own  I  willingly  prefer. 


Till'.   ORIGINAL. 
T6  reov,  yjnaan-t 


dypa, 

-udyira  xal  unyn)':nz  'JTtepTS- 
OOV  dljffOpLOl. 


THE    ol/OTATION. 
\ft  yapOUTQi  —<n'izii:iu  /'/./(>>', 
i'd:  tni    xal   aayn'/Mi-   aitdarfa 
y.ajh'i.  tprtot  Ilivdapos,  rb  xard 
ok  xpetTTOV  firsiodat. 


QUOTATIONS   OF  SUBSTANCE  107 

Proclus,  in  his  commentary  on  the  "  Timasus "  of 
Plato,  book  II.,  section  69,  writes  as  follows : 

This  was  also  granted  to  Timaeus  by  Socrates,  when  he  di- 
vides a  line  into  four  parts,  the  intelligible,  the  dianoetic,  the 
sensible,  and  the  conjectural  ;  where  likewise,  speaking  about 
the  good,  he  says  that  it  reigns  in  the  intelligible  place,  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  sun  in  the  visible  region. 

This  is  Taylor's  translation.  There  are  no  such 
words  in  Plato  ;  but  he  has  the  thought  in  an  extended 
form  in  the  "  Republic,"  book  VI.,  section  508. 

To  show  clearly  the  structure  of  these  compressed 
quotations  in  ancient  literature,  I  give  here,  from  Jow- 
ett's  translation,  the  whole  passage  : 

"And  which,"  I  said,  "of  the  Gods  in  heaven,  would  you  say  was 
the  lord  of  this  element  ?  Whose  is  that  light  which  makes  the 
eye  to  see  perfectly  and  the  visible  to  appear  ?  "  "  You  mean  the 
sun,  as  you  and  all  mankind  say. "  "  May  not  the  relation  of  sight 
to  this  deity  be  as  follows  ?"  "How?"  "  Neither  sight,  nor 
the  eye  in  which  sight  resides,  is  the  sun."  "No."  "  Yet  of 
all  the  organs  of  sense  the  eye  is  likest  the  sun."  "Far  the 
likest."  "And  the  power  which  the  eye  possesses  is  a  sort  of 
effluence  which  is  dispensed  by  the  sun  ? "  "Exactly."  "Then 
the  sun  is  not  sight,  but  the  author  of  sight  who  is  recognized  by 
sight?"  "True,"  he  said.  "And  this  is  he»whom  I  call  the 
child  of  the  good,  whom  the  good  begat  in  his  own  likeness,  to 
be  in  the  visible  world,  in  relation  to  sight  and  the  things  of 
sight,  what  the  good  is  in  the  intellectual  world  in  relation  to 
mind  and  the  things  of  the  mind."  "  Will  you  be  a  little  more 
explicit?"  he  said.  "Why,  you  know,"  I  said,  "that  the  eyes, 
when  a  person  no  longer  directs  them  toward  those  objects  on 
the  colors  of  which  the  light  of  day  is  shining,  but  the  moon 
and  stars  only,  see  dimly,  and  are  nearly  blind  ;  they  seem  to 
have  no  clearness  of  vision  in  them."  "Very  true."  "But 
when  they  are  directed  toward  objects  on  which  the  sun  shines, 
they  see  clearly,  and  there  is  sight  in  them?"      "Certainly." 


IOS       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

"And  the  soul  is  like  the  eye  :  when  resting  on  that  on  which 
truth  and  being  shine,  the  soul  perceives  and  understands,  and 
is  radiant  with  intelligence  ;  but  when  turned  towards  the  twilight 
of  becoming  and  perishing,  then  she  has  opinion  only,  and  goes 
blinking  about,  and  is  first  of  one  opinion  and  then  of  another, 
and  seems  to  have  no  intelligence?"  "Just  so."  "Now, 
that  which  imparts  truth  to  the  known  and  the  power  of  knowing 
to  the  knower  is  what  I  would  have  you  term  the  idea  of  good, 
and  that  you  will  regard  as  the  cause  of  science  and  of  truth,  as 
known  by  us  ;  beautiful  too,  as  are  both  truth  and  knowledge, 
you  will  be  right  in  estimating  this  other  nature  as  more  beauti- 
ful than  either  ;  and,  as  in  the  previous  instance,  light  and  sight 
may  be  truly  said  to  be  like  the  sun,  and  yet  not  to  be  the  sun, 
so  in  this  other  sphere,  science  and  truth  may  be  deemed  like 
the  good,  but  not  the  good  ;  the  good  has  a  place  of  honor  yet 
higher."  "What  a  wonder  of  beauty  that  must  be,"  he  said, 
"  which  is  the  author  of  science  and  truth,  and  yet  surpasses  them 
in  beauty  ;  for  you  surely  cannot  mean  to  say  that  the  good  is 
pleasure  ?  "  "  Speak  not  profanely,"  I  replied  ;  "  but  please  to 
consider  the  image  in  another  point  of  view. "  "  How  ? '  '  "  Why, 
you  would  say  that  the  sun  is  not  only  the  author  of  visibility  in 
all  visible  things,  but  of  generation  and  nourishment  and  growth, 
though  he  himself  is  not  a  generation  ?"  "  Certainly."  "In 
like  manner  the  good  may  be  said  to  be  not  only  the  author  of 
knowledge  in  all  things  known,  but  of  their  being  and  essence, 
and  yet  the  good  is  not  essence,  but  far  exceeds  essence  in  dig- 
nity and  power." 


Then  follows  the  illustration  of  the  line  cut  into  four 
equal  parts,  one  of  which  he  calls  the   intelligible,  to 

represent  the  highest  region  of  existence  and  thought. 
He  does  not  say  anything  about  the  good  reigning 
in  this  intelligible  part,  though  he  implies  that  it 
docs  so. 

Cicero,  '•  De   Finibus,"  book  II.,  chapter  28,  quotes 
Epicurus    as    follows:     "The    greatest    pain    is    brief." 


QUOTATIONS   OF  SUBSTANCE  IO9 

This  is  quite  condensed  ;  the  sentence  of  Epicurus  is 
much  longer.1 

Quintilian,  book  VIII.,  chapter  3,  cites  Cicero  as  say- 
ing in  a  letter  to  Brutus:  "  In  my  judgment  nothing 
is  eloquence  that  does  not  strike  with  admiration  and 
surprise."  "  In  all  the  extant  letters  of  the  Roman 
orator  to  Brutus,"  writes  the  Rev.  James  Scott,2  "  this 
quotation  is  nowhere  formally  to  be  found  ;  but  we  find 
the  substance  of  it." 

Lastly,  we  have  a  passage  in  Aristotle  which  fur- 
nishes us  examples  of  several  of  the  methods  of  quo- 
ting already  spoken  of  in  this  book.  It  is  the  fol- 
lowing : 

The  spirit  of  anger  too,  men  reckon  as  courage,  and  they 
who  act  through  anger,  like  brutes  turning  on  those  who  have 
wounded  them,  get  the  character  of  being  brave,  because  the 
converse  is  true,  and  brave  men  are  spirited.  The  spirit  of 
anger  is  most  keen  for  the  encountering  of  dangers,  and  hence 
Homer  wrote  : 

"  He  put  strength  into  his  spirit." 

"He  roused  up  his  strength  and  spirit." 

"  Fierce  strength  in  his  nostrils." 

"  His  blood  boiled." 

Here  are  four  short  phrases  attributed  to  Homer; 
"  and  none  of  them,"  says  Grant,3  is  quite  accurate."  The 
first  is  compounded  of  the  "  Iliad,"  XIV.,  1  5 1  and  XVI., 
529.  The  last  "is  not  in  Homer  at  all."  It  is  an  in- 
stance of  the  sense  of  Homer  expressed  in  new  words 
and  by  new  imagery.  Aristotle  is  arguing  that  anger 
is  a  source  of  courage,  and  proving  it  from  the  poet. 

1  See  his  "  Select  Sentences,"  IV. 

2  "  Principles  of  New  Testament  Quotation,"  p.  89. 

3  "Ethics  of  Aristotle,"  Vol.  IE,  p.  41,  note  10. 

K 


IIO       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

This  is  the  representation  of  Homer  in  many  places, 
and  Aristotle  sums  up  their  essence  in  his  own  way. 

Thus  this  method  of  quoting  was  in  accordance  with 
the  literary  customs  of  antiquity  ;  it  misled  no  one  ;  it 
perplexed  no  one  ;  for  it  was  readily  understood,  and 
was  recommended  by  its  convenience,  as  it  enabled  a 
writer  to  refer  in  a  brief  sentence  to  long  and  widely 
scattered  statements  from  celebrated  and  familiar 
books,  which  the  reader  would  at  once  recall,  being 
thus  reminded  of  them.  J> 

In  the  whole  New  Testament  there  are  but  three  or 
N\    four  clear  instances  of  this  kind. 

At  Matt.  2  :  23,  it  is  said  that  Joseph,  through  fear 
of  Archelaus,  made  a  home  for  Jesus  in  Nazareth, 
"that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  through 
the  prophets,  that  he  should  be  called  a  Nazarene." 
There  is  no  prediction  in  the  Old  Testament  verbally 
like  this,  and  it  is  probably  an  instance  of  quotation  of 
substance,  rather  than  of  words.  If  it  occurred  in  any 
ancient  Greek  book  but  the  New  Testament,  it  would 
be  interpreted  in  this  way  at  once,  and  no  difficulty 
would  be  found  with  it,  as  the  preceding  examples  show. 
That  it  is  referred  by  the  evangelist  to  «  the  prophets," 
and  not  to  any  particular  prophet,  favors  this  view  ; 
though  in  a  few  exceptional  instances,  John  6  :  45  ; 
Acts  1 3  :  40  ;  15:15,  the  plural  is  employed  with  ref- 
erence to  predictions  by  particular  prophets.  The  form 
of  quotation  used  in  the  original  may  bo  read  as  either 
direct  or  indirect.  In  our  Common  version  the  proph- 
ecy is  translated  as  a  direct  quotation  ;  while  the  re- 
visers of  our  English  Bible,  on  the  other  hand,  have 
translated  it  as  an  indirect  quotation,  evidently  regard- 


QUOTATIONS  OF.  SUBSTANCE         III 

ing  it  as  a  quotation  of  substance,  and  not  of  language, 
and  supposing  that  such  a  quotation  should  have  the 
indirect  form.  The  examples  which  I  have  adduced, 
however,  show  that  the  Greek  writers,  in  quoting  the 
substance  of  what  others  have  said,  sometimes  employ 
one  form  of  quotation,  and  sometimes  another.  The 
quotation  of  substance,  if  from  a  poet,  may  even  take 
the  form  of  verse,  with  measure,  rhythm,  cadence,  as  in 
several  of  the  instances  which  I  have  adduced. 

The  quotation,  if  this  view  is  correct,  is  a  summary 
statement  of  all  those  predictions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment which  represent  the  Messiah  as  lowly,  despised, 
and  suffering,  such  as  Ps.  22,  Isa.  53,  and  Lam.  3.*" 
All  Galileans  were  regarded  in  Jerusalem  as  unculti- 
vated and  rude.  "  A  Galilean,"  says  Toy,  "  was  recog- 
nized by  his  ridiculous  pronunciation,"  as  was  Peter 
(Matt.  26  :  73).  "  He  especially  confounded  the  gut- 
tural letters."  In  the  Talmud  he  is  held  to  be  inca- 
pable of  understanding  the  Scriptures  rightly.  The 
Pharisees  said  that  no  prophet  could  arise  out  of  Gali- 
lee (John  7  :  52).  Nazareth  would  share  the  general 
contempt  in  which  all  Galilee  was  held.  But  it  had, 
in  addition,  a  low  reputation  of  its  own,  even  in  Gali- 
lee, as  is  evident  from  the  words  of  Nathanael,  himself 
a  Galilean  :  "  Can  there  anything  good  come  out  of 
Nazareth  ?  "  (John  1  :  46.) 

The  bad  character  of  the  Nazarenes,  so  well  known 
to  the  evangelist  and  his  Jewish  readers,  would  render 
the  meaning  of  the  quotation  clear  to  them.  To  us 
the  character  of  the  Nazarenes  is  a  subject  of  curious 
inquiry,  and  we  determine  it  by  consulting  ancient 
documents,  in  which   we   glean   but   a  hint  here  and 


112       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

there  ;  but  to  the  Jews  of  the  first  century  it  was  an 
ever-present  odium  ;  and  hence,  while  to  some  modern 
critics  the  residence  of  Jesus  in  Nazareth  may  seem  a 
questionable  fulfillment  of  the  predictions  of  his  lowli- 
ness and  the  contempt  with  which  his  countrymen 
should  regard  him,  to  his  immediate  followers,  ac- 
quainted but  too  well  with  the  ill-savor  of  the  town,  it 
would  need  only  to  be  mentioned  in  order  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  most  sad  instance  of  his  humiliation  and 
suffering,  which  the  prophets  had  foretold  in  many 
passages  too  long  to  reproduce  in  full. 

Toy  does  not  reject  this  view  of  the  quotation,  but 
finds  two  difficulties  with  it  : 

i.  "It  does  not  seem  likely,"  he  writes,  "that  the 
evangelist  would  make  so  vague  an  allusion  to  such 
striking  passages  as  Isa.  53  and  Lam.  3."  But  the  al- 
lusion is  not  more  "vague  "  than  many  of  the  quota- 
tions of  substance  in  Greek  and  Latin  literature  which 
I  have  adduced.  Besides,  it  springs  naturally  from  the 
narrative  of  the  settlement  of  Joseph  in  Nazareth. 

2.  "An  accidental  social  contempt,"  Toy  says  again, 
"attaching  to  birth  in  Nazareth,  corresponds  only 
feebly  to  the  prophetic  picture  of  a  man  despised  and 
rejected  because  of  his  adherence  to  the  law  of  God." 
But  the  "  social  contempt"  beneath  which  Jesus  suf- 
fered was  not  on  account  of  his  "  birth  in  Nazareth,"  for 
he  was  not  born  there.  Nor  was  it  because  people  in 
general  supposed  that  he  was  born  there,  but  because 
it  was  known  that  he  grew  up  there  from  early  child- 
hood, until  he  was  thirty  years  of  age,  and  that  his 
education  and  associations  were  Xazarene.  The  "so- 
cial contempt  "  was  not  "  accidental."      The  parents  of 


QUOTATIONS   OF  SUBSTANCE  113 

our  Lord  intended  to  bring  him  up  elsewhere,  and 
would  have  done  so  had  they  not  been  "warned  of  God 
in  a  dream"  (Matt.  2  :  22),  of  the  danger  which  they 
were  about  to  incur.  Perhaps  they  selected  Nazareth 
for  their  home,  after  their  return  from  Egypt,  not  only 
on  account  of  its  obscurity,  but  because  its  reputation 
was  such  that  even  a  bloodthirsty  Herod  would  not 
think  of  looking  for  the  Messiah  in  it.  In  any  case, 
they  were  driven  to  the  remote  and  disreputable  city 
of  Nazareth  by  the  sin  of  the  world  embodied  in  the 
murderous  jealousy  of  a  great  ruler ;  and  the  residence 
of  Jesus  in  this  unbelieving  and  wicked  place  (Mark  6  : 
6  ;  Luke  4  :  28-30  ;  John  1  :  46),  and  the  contempt  in 
which  it  involved  him,  was  a  part,  and  no  small  part,  of 
his  humiliation  and  suffering  for  the  world.  A  holy 
man  might  form  some  conception  of  the  mental  and 
spiritual  pain  which  it  involved,  should  he  be  compelled 
to  spend  thirty  years  in  the  immediate  company  of  the 
most  ignorant  and  vicious  persons,  and  then  to  go  out 
into  society  with  all  the  stigma  of  such  associations  upon 
him.  Of  course,  the  residence  of  Christ  in  Nazareth 
and  the  suffering  which  attended  and  followed  it  do 
not  correspond  fully  to  the  "prophetic  picture  of  a 
man  despised  and  rejected  because  of  his  adherence  to 
the  law  of  God,"  for  it  is  only  a  part  of  the  picture,  the 
whole  embracing  his  entire  life  and  death. 

At  John  7  :  38  our  Lord  cries  :  "  He  who  believeth 
on  me,  as  the  Scripture  hath  said,  out  of  his  belly  shall 
flow  rivers  of  living  water."  There  is  no  passage  in 
the  Old  Testament  which  contains  just  these  words  '> 
but  they  express  the  meaning  of  all  those  passages 
which  represent  the  salutary  influence  of  a  holy  man 


114       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

under  the  image  of  flowing  water,  like  Isa.  58  :  11: 
"  Thou  shalt  be  like  a  watered  garden,  and  like  a 
spring  of  water,  whose  waters  fail  not";  or  Prov. 
18  :4: 

The  words  of  a  man's  mouth  are  as  deep  waters  ; 
The  well-spring  of  wisdom  is  as  a  flowing  brook. 

At  Rom.  3  :  10  the  Apostle  Paul  says:  "As  it  is 
written,  There  is  none  righteous,  no,  not  one."  It  is 
generally  held  that  this  quotation  can  be  found  only  in 
substance  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  does  not  follow 
verbally  any  particular  passage.  Toy  regards  it  as  a 
condensation  of  Eccl.  7  :  20  :  "  There  is  not  a  right- 
eous man  on  earth,  who  does  good  and  sins  not "  ;  and 
Ps.  14  :  3  :  "no,  not  one."  If  he  had  referred  to  the 
latter  passage  as  a  whole,  he  would  probably  have  been 
more  nearly  accurate  :  "  There  is  none  that  doeth  good, 
no,  not  one."  Indeed,  I  doubt  if  this  quotatation 
should  be  regarded  as  one  of  substance  only  ;  for  it 
follows  Ps.  14:3  so  nearly  that  it  seems  to  me  a  ver- 
bal quotation,  with  such  slight  variation  from  the 
Hebrew  text  as  occurs  frequently  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

At  Eph.  5  :  14,  the  Apostle  Paul  quotes  as  follows  : 
"Wherefore  he  saith,  Awake,  thou  that  sleepest,  and 
arise  from  the  dead,  and  Christ  shall  shine  upon  thee." 
"The  preceding  context,"  writes  Toy,  "  speaks  of  the 
shameful  hidden  deeds  of  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  ex- 
posing them  to  light  that  they  may  be  seen  in  their 
true  character,  and  avoided  ;  and  iu  this  citation  Christ 
IS  declared  to  be  the  source-  of  light."  The  quotation 
has  given   rise  to  much  debate,   chiefly   because   the 


<A 


QUOTATIONS   OF   SUBSTANCE  115 

words  cannot  be  found  in  the  Old  Testament.  Phrases 
somewhat  like  them  occur  at  Isa.  60  :  1  and  26  :  19: 
"  Arise,  shine  ;  for  thy  light  is  come,  and  the  glory  of 
the  Lord  is  risen  upon  thee."  "Awake  and  sing,  ye 
that  dwell  in  the  dust  :  for  thy  dew  is  as  the  dew  of 
herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast  forth  the  dead."  These 
verses,  however,  are  too  distant  from  the  language 
quoted  to  afford  a  very  secure  reference.  Toy  con- 
cludes his  discussion  of  the  quotation  by  expressing 
the  opinion  that  it  is  probably  a  free  rendering  of  sev- 
eral passages  in  Isaiah.  I  should  say,  rather,  that  it  is 
a  summing  up  of  the  teaching  of  various  Scriptures, 
the  sense  of  which  is  that  Christ  shall  be  the  light  of 
men,  and  especially  of  such  as  shall  arise  from  sin  to 
seek  him  in  truth.  These  passages  are  so  frequent 
in  the  Old  Testament  that  there  is  no  occasion  to 
specify  them.  Thus  the  quotation  would  be  what 
Meyer  calls  it,  "  a  mingling  of  Old  Testament  reminis- 
cences." 


VII 


ALLEGORY 


'THERE  are  two  places  in  the  New  Testament  in 
-L  which  the  writers  quote  from  the  Old  in  order 
to  present  to  their  readers  certain  features  of  our  relig- 
ion by  means  of  allegories.  I  refer  to  Gal.  4  :  21-31, 
where  Hagar  and  Sarah  are  brought  forward  as  repre- 
sentative, the  one  of  the  law  and  the  other  of  the 
gospel;  and  to  Heb.  7,  where  Melchizedek  is  regarded 
as  representative  of  Christ.  If,  as  some  have  thought, 
there  are  other  allegorical  quotations,  they  do  not 
clearly  define  themselves  as  such.  Jowett '  points  to 
Rom.  7  ;  1  Cor.  10  ;  2  Cor.  3,  and  a  few  other  passages 
yet  more  doubtfully  allegorical.  Some  of  these  should 
be  regarded  as  typical,  rather  than  as  allegorical. 
Meyer,  writing  of  passages  similar  to  these,  says  : 

We  must  be  on  our  guard  against  confounding  the  idea  of  the 
allegory  with  that  of  the  type.  Neither  does  the  type  necessarily 
rest  on  allegorical  interpretation,  nor  does  the  allegory  necessar- 
ily presuppose  that  what  is  so  interpreted  is  a  type  ;  the  two  may 
be  independent  one  of  the  other.  The  allegory  has  a  much 
freer  scope,  and  may  be  handled  very  differently  by  different 
people  ;  but  the  type  is  a  real  divine  preformation  of  a  New  Tes- 
tament fact  in  the  Old  Testament  history.  One  fact  signifies 
another  allegorically  when  the  ideal  character  of  the  latter  is 
shown  as  presenting  itself  in  the  former  ;  in  which  case  the  sig- 
nificant fact  need  not  be  derived  from  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  interpretations  may  be  very  various. 

>  "  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  361. 
116 


ALLEGORY  117 

The  type  in  other  words,  being  a  divine  foreshadowing 
6i  future  characters  and  events,  admits  of  but  one  in- 
terpretation of  its  typical  meaning ;  while  the  mate- 
rials from  which  the  allegory  is  derived  may  be  molded 
in  various  shapes,  according  to  the  various  conceptions 
of  those  who  employ  them. 

A  second  reason  for  not  considering  in  this  chapter 
the  other  passages  sometimes  ranked  as  allegories,  is 
my  conviction  that  some  of  them  should  be  excluded 
even  from  the  list  of  types,  and  reckoned  as  mere  ordi- 
nary illustrations.  A  third  is  the  fact  that,  in  any 
case,  they  present  no  difficulties  which  are  not  met  in 
the  two  immediately  before  us. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  first  of  these  passages  and 
examine  a  single  phrase  of  Gal.  4  :  21-31  :  we  shall 
then  consider  both  our  allegories  together. 

The  Apostle  Paul,  in  Gal.  4:21-31,  after  reciting 
the  history  of  Hagar  and  Sarah,  and  their  sons  Ishmael 
and  Isaac,  introduces  his  application  of  it  with  words 
that  are  rendered  in  our  Common  version  :  "  Which 
things  are  an  allegory  "  ;  and  in  the  Revised  version  : 
"Which  things  contain  an  allegory."  The  rendering 
of  the  Revised  version  is  for  substance  that  on  which 
Meyer  insists  as  the  only  correct  one.  According  to 
him  the  Greek  verb,1  whish  here  is  in  the  passive 
voice,2  must  be  rendered,  "  to  be  spoken  allegorically, 
to  have  an  allegorical  meaning"  ;  and  hence  the  alle- 
gory in  the  instance  before  us  must  be  found  in  the 
original  passage,  and  not  in  the  use  which  the  apostle 
makes  of  it.      I  do  not   know  how   to    reconcile  this 

1  Pres.  act.  ind.,  1st  p.,  dAATjyopew. 

2  Pres.  pass,  participle,  iMyyopovntvos. 


Il8       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

statement  with  the  definition  of  the  allegory  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  type  which  Meyer  gives  on  the 
same  page  with  it,  and  which  I  have  reproduced.  If 
the  apostle  means  to  say  that  the  history  was  allegor- 
ized by  Moses  when  he  wrote  it,  or  by  God  when  he 
providentially  ordered  its  events,  how  can  it  be  inter- 
preted in  various  ways  by  various  later  writers  ?  It 
would  be,  I  should  suppose,  quite  as  rigidly  fixed  as  the 
type. 

However,  we  are  not  obliged  to  adopt  this  rendering 
of  the  Greek  verb.  '  In  the  passive  voice,  in  which  it 
is  here  found,  it  may  mean  either,  "  Which  things  are 
spoken  allegorically  "  by  the  historian,  and  hence  "  have 
an  allegorical  sense"  ;  or,  "Which  things  are  allegor- 
ized," that  is,  "by  me,  here  and  now."  The  former 
rendering  is  sustained  by  the  lexicons,  and  the  latter 
by  Tholuck,  Hofmann,  Marsh,  Palfrey,  and  others. 
Meyer  admits  that  the  passive  verb  sometimes  has  the 
meaning  claimed  for  it  here  by  Hofmann,  and  says  that 
it  is  so  used  "in  Plutarch,  Synesius,  and  elsewhere." 
Davidson  defends  the  former  rendering  only  because  it 
is  "  as  good  as  the  proposed  one."  Riddle  '  grants  that 
the  passive  verb  may  have  the  latter  sense,  but  he  "in- 
sists "  upon  what  he  calls  "the  more  definite  and  strict 
meaning"  in  this  place,  because  "this  interpretation 
will  guard  against  the  assumptions  and  errors  which  are 
based  on  the  looser  view."  What  these  "  assumptions 
and  errors  "  are  he  nowhere  tells  US.  Why  should  any 
"  assumptions  and  errors"  he  "based  on"  the  fact  that 
the  Apostle  Paul  constructs  an  allegory  out  of  material 

1 "  Galaa'ans,"  in  the  American  editioa  of  Lange. 


ALLEGORY  119 

furnished  by  the  Old  Testament  ?  Dante  does  the 
same  ;  Bunyan  does  the  same ;  and  no  one  censures 
them.  Why  then  should  it  be  forbidden  to  an  apostle 
to  frame  allegories  in  which  important  truths  are  made 
clear  and  impressive  ?  Or,  if  we  say  that  the  allegory 
in  this  instance  was  framed  by  Moses,  or  by  God,  and 
only  interpreted  by  the  apostle,  what  "  assumptions 
and  errors  "do  we  avoid  by  thus  shifting  it  from  one 
author  to  another  ? 

In  either  case,  the  apostle  does  not  set  aside  the  his- 
toric character  of  the  narrative.  This  is  granted  by 
all  critics  who  are  even  tolerably  free  from  the  desire 
to  impeach  his  inspiration.  Kuenen,  indeed,  attributes 
to  him  "  a  misconception  of  the  historic  meaning  "  of 
Scripture,  and  Davidson  declares  that  "  he  treats  the 
history  as  pure  allegory  without  any  objective  basis." 
Dogmatic  statements  like  these  are  to  be  expected 
from  such  sources,  and  they  are  usually  emphatic  in 
proportion  to  the  absence  of  evidence  in  their  favor. 
But  the  great  majority  of  critics,  of  even  the  more 
careless  schools  of  theological  thought,  admit  at  once 
that  the  New  Testament  writer  holds  fast  the  historic 
verity  of  the  record  which  he  uses  as  the  basis  of  his 
allegory.  Indeed,  throughout  this  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  as  in  all  his  other  writings,  Paul  assumes  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  Old  Testament  history,  and  uniformly 
founds  his  arguments  upon  it  without  a  shadow  of 
doubt  or  misgiving.  Spenser  shows  no  "  misconcep- 
tion of  the  historic  meaning"  of  Queen  Elizabeth  by 
giving  her  a  place  in  the  "Faerie  Oueene."  Bunyan 
shows  no  "misconception  of  the  historic  meaning"  of 
Demas  by  giving  him  a  place  in  the  "  Pilgrim's  Pro- 


120       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NHW   TESTAMENT 

gress."  Goethe  shows  no  "misconception  of  the  his- 
toric meaning  "  of  Lord  Byron  by  giving  him  a  place 
in  the  "Second  Part  of  Faust."  In  short,  allegory 
does  not  usually  either  affirm  or  deny  "  the  historic 
meaning  "  of  the  records  on  which  it  is  based,  or  ask 
any  questions  regarding  it ;  and  there  is  no  hint  of  any 
doubt  in  the  passage  before  us. 

If  we  adopt  the  former  of  the  two  renderings  of  the 
Greek  passive  verb  "to  be  allegorized,"  then  we  shall 
see  in  the  history  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  a  divinely  or- 
dered foreshadowing  of  the  law  and  the  gospel  in  their 
relations  to  each  other,  an  acted  parable,  a  history  and 
an  allegory  in  one.  We  shall  find  use  for  the  state- 
ment of  Toy:  "In  a  general  way  it  is  true  that,  in  the 
Genesis  narrative,  Sarah  and  Hagar  represent  faith  in 
God  and  its  absence."  We  know  that  much  of  the 
history  of  the  Old  Dispensation  foreshadows  the  New, 
and  this  will  be  for  us  one  of  the  series  of  events  thus 
providentially  arranged.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we 
adopt  the  latter  of  the  two  interpretations,  as  the  usage 
of  the  word  permits  us  to  do,  then  the  history  will  re- 
main for  us  a  history,  and  we  shall  hold  that  it  is  used 
by  the  apostle  as  material  for  his  allegorical  concep- 
tion, precisely  as  other  historical  and  biographical  ma- 
terial is  used  by  other  writers  of  allegory. 

At  the  same  time  we  must  recognize  a  typical  ele- 
ment in  both  these  historic  passages,  as  throughout  the 
Old  Testament  records  ;  "  Sarah  and  Hagar  represent  " 
typically  "faith  in  God  and  its  absence";  and  Mel- 
chizedek  represents  Christ  as  a  most  vivid  type.  The 
authors  of  the  epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  the  He- 
brews, however,  do  not  limit  their  view  to  the  typical 


ALLEGORY  121 

features  of  the  history ;  they  take  these  for  a  sugges- 
tion, a  starting-point,  and  construct  their  allegories 
with  perfect  freedom,  like  all  masters  of  this  species  of 
literature. 

"But,"  some  one  may  still  say,  "was  it  right  for  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  to  bring  out  of  the  Old 
Testament  record  a  meaning  which  it  does  not  con- 
tain ?  "  Let  me  make  my  answer  clear,  at  the  risk  of 
some  repetition.  These  writers  do  not,  in  any  case, 
"  bring  out  of  the  Old  Testament  record  a  meaning 
which  it  does  not  contain."  Is  it  in  itself  at  once  both 
history  and  allegory  ?  Then  they  do  but  interpret  it 
and  set  before  us  its  real  inner  meaning.  Or,  is  it 
only  typical  history,  which  they  use  allegorically,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  custom  of  the  authors  of  alle- 
gory ?  Then,  like  them,  they  make  it  a  means  of  illus- 
trating thoughts  in  addition  to  those  which  it  contains  ; 
these  thoughts  belong  not  to  the  history,  but  to  the 
allegorists,  and  they  employ  it  only  as  an  appropriate 
vehicle  to  convey  them  to  our  minds.  Dante  does  not 
bring  out  of  the  brief  story  of  Beatrice  a  meaning 
which  it  does  not  contain.  Goethe  does  not  bring  out 
of  the  Faust-legend  a  meaning  which  it  does  not  con- 
tain. Bunyan  does  not  bring  out  of  the  incidents  of  a 
mediaeval  pilgrimage  a  meaning  which  they  do  not  con- 
tain. All  these  great  writers,  admitting  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  materials  with  which  they  deal,  so  use 
them  as  to  express  to  the  reader  a  meaning  additional 
to  the  literal,  and  this  additional  meaning  does  not  be- 
long to  their  materials,  but  is  their  own. 

In  the  remainder  of  this  chapter  I  shall  recognize 
the  allegory  as  existing  in  the  New  Testament  alone, 

L 


122       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

adopting  the  second  of  the  two  definitions  of  the  Greek 
passive  verb  "to  be  allegorized." 

There  are  some  features  of  our  biblical  allegories 
which  seem  at  first  to  be  of  a  very  unusual  character. 
For  example,  Hagar  is  said  to  represent  "  Mount  Sinai 
in  Arabia."  Again,  the  name  and  title  of  Melchizedek 
are  analyzed  and  employed  as  significant  of  Christian 
truth  ;  and  the  fact  that  he  appears  in  the  record  with- 
out any  statement  of  his  parentage,  his  birth,  or  his 
death,  is  used  to  set  forth  the  eternity  of  the  Son  of 
God.  These  features  of  the  passage  have  occasioned 
some  surprise.  Volumes  have  been  written  on  such 
questions  as  the  following  :  Was  the  name  Hagar  one 
of  the  names  by  which  Mount  Sinai  was  designated  in 
ancient  times  ?  Was  Melchizedek,  who  was  "  without 
beginning  of  life  or  end  of  days,"  an  angel  incarnate, 
or  even  Christ  himself  ?  Were  the  name,  "  King  of 
righteousness,"  and  the  title,  "  King  of  peace,"  con- 
ferred on  Melchizedek  by  special  divine  revelation  ? 
I  ask,  therefore,  that  the  reader  bear  these  difficulties 
in  mind  while  he  accompanies  me  in  a  study  of  the  alle- 
gory in  general  literature,  to  ascertain  the  principles  of 
its  structure  and  to  observe  the  freedom  with  winch 
the  writer  employs  the  materials  at  his  command.  We 
shall  approach  our  conclusion  by  an  indirect  and  cir- 
cuitous path,  but  at  the  end  the  difficulties  with  which 
we  start  will  have  vanished,  for  we  shall  have  found  the 
biblical  allegories,  after  all,  quite  like  those  of  other 
literature,  whether  ancient  or  modern. 

Fortunately,  we  have  much  allegory  in  our  modern 
literatures,  and  we  need  not  go  beyond  our  own  doors 
to  study  the  peculiarities  of  this  kind  of  writing.     Spen- 


ALLEGORY  123 

ser's  "^Eclogues  "  and  "  Faerie  Queene  "  are  allegories 
from  beginning,  to  end.  Swift's  "  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  his 
"Battle  of  the  Books,"  and  his  "  Gulliver,"  are  among 
the  most  brilliant  of  allegories.  But  Bunyan  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  recent  authors  of  allegory;  his 
"  Pilgrim's  Progress  "  excels  all  other  works  of  its  class 
in  character-drawing  and  incident  and  humor,  and  his 
"  Holy  War  "  in  the  felicity  of  the  invention  and  the 
thoroughness  and  consistency  with  which  it  is  wrought 
out.  There  are  many  allegories  also  in  the  "  Second 
Part  of  Faust ;"  and,  going  back  a  little,  in  the  "  Di- 
vine Comedy  "  and  the  "  New  Life  "  of  Dante.  In  all 
these  works,  the  older  materials  of  history  and  fable 
are  freely  allegorized  by  the  later  writers,  as  Sarah  and 
Hagar  are  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  as  Mel- 
chizedek  is  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  Thus  in 
the  "  Second  Part  of  Faust  "  Ariel  stands  for  poetry  ; 
the  Graces,  the  Parcae,  and  the  Furies  are  introduced 
with  new  offices  ;  Zo'flus,  a  historic  character,  an 
abusive  critic  of  the  third  century  before  Christ,  and 
Thersites,  a  mythical  character,  a  personage  of  tne 
Iliad,  are  joined  in  one,  and  become  Zoi'lo-Thersites, 
the  embodiment  of  political  slander;  Helen  of  Troy  is 
the  beautiful  in  art  ;  Anaxagoras  and  Thales  represent 
the  two  antagonistic  schools  of  geology  which  existed 
at  the  beginning  of  our  century ;  and  the  Virgin  Mary 
is  the  symbol  of  divine  love. 

Does  the  allegory  in  Heb.  7  speak  of  Melchizedek 
as  "  without  beginning  of  days  or  end  of  life  "  ? 1     And 

1  Among  the  cuneiform  tablets  found  at  Tel  el-Amarna,  is  one  in 
which  a  priest  of  Jerusalem  speaks.  He  was  a  worshiper  of  a  deity 
whose  name  corresponds  well  with  that  of  "the  most  high   God,"  men- 


124       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

does  this  mean  merely  the  Melchizedek  who  appears  in 
the  record,  as  distinguished  from  the  Melchizedek  who 
was  born,  who  lived,  who  died,  and  was  buried  ?  Car- 
lyle,  in  his  essay  on  Goethe's  "  Helena,"  writes  as  fol- 
lows of  a  portion  of  the  "Second  Part  of  Faust,"  which 


Faust  too — for  he,  as  every  one  sees,  must  be  lord  of  this  for- 
tress— is  a  much  altered  man  since  we  last  met  him.  Nay,  some- 
times we  could  fancy  he  were  only  acting  a  part  on  this  occa- 
sion, were  a  mere  mummer,  representing  not  so  much  his  own 
personality  as  some  shadow  and  impersonation  of  his  history; 
not  so  much  his  own  Faustship  as  the  tradition  of  Faust's  ad- 
ventures. 

This  is  precisely  the  principle  of  the  sacred  allegory 
which  we  are  considering.  The  Melchizedek  of  the 
allegory  in  "  not  so  much  his  own  personality  as  some 
shadow  and  impersonation  of  his  history";  and  any 
feature  of  the  history  is  employed  which  is  adapted  to 
the  purpose  of  the  writer. 

It  is  one  of  the  privileges  granted  to  the  allegorist 
to  consider  the  record  rather  than  the  real  person  or 
thing  spoken  of  in  it.  The  "  pillar  of  salt"  of  Gen. 
19  :  26  does  not  now  exist ;  but  the  writer  of  allegory 

tioned  in  (Jen.  14  :  18.  It  appears  from  the  tablet  that  he  was  not  a 
hereditary  priest.  Sayce  supposes  him  to  have  been  a  lineal  successor  of 
Melchizedek,  and  would  find  in  the  fact  that  the  priests  of  this  line  did  not 
inherit  their  office,  an  explanation  of  the  statement  in  F  lib.  7:  3,  that  Mel- 
chizedek was  "  without  father,  without  mother,  without  genealogy."  He 
would  apply  the  statement  not  to  Melchizedek  as  a  person,  but  to  Mel- 
chizedek  as  a  priest.  What  explanation,  however,  does  this  afford  of  the 
phrases  immediately  following,  "Having  neither  beginning  <>(  days  nor 
end  of  lite"?  It  is  evident  that  the  writer  throughout  the  passage  uses 
his  materials  with  the  freedom  to  which  the  authors  of  allegory  are  accus- 
tomed, and  not  with  historic  precision. 


ALLEGORY  125 

beholds  it   yet   standing,  and  Bunyan  has  his  pilgrim 
examine  it  : 

Now  I  saw  that  just  on  the  other  side  of  this  plain,  the  pil- 
grims came  to  a  place  where  stood  an  old  monument  hard  by 
the  highway-side.  .  .  They  both  concluded  that  it  was  the  pillar 
of  salt  into  which  Lot's  wife  was  turned  for  her  looking  back 
with  a  covetous  heart. 

So  also,  to  Bunyan,  Demas  is  still  living  and  seeking 
silver. 

This  fanciful  and  capricious  character  of  even  reli- 
gious allegory  is  recognized  by  Carlyle  in  the  early 
pages  of  his  "  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship"  : 

The  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  is  an  allegory,  and  a  beautiful, 
just,  and  serious  one  ;  but  consider  whether  Bunyan' s  allegory 
could  have  preceded  the  faith  it  symbolizes  !  The  faith  had 
been  already  there,  standing,  believed  by  everybody  ;  of  which 
the  allegory  could  then  become  the  shadow  ;  and  with  all 
seriousness,  we  may  say  a  sportful  shadow,  a  mere  play  of  the 
fancy,  in  comparison  with  that  awful  fact  and  scientific  certainty 
which  it  poetically  strives  to  emblem. 

But  was  the  ancient  allegorist  as  free  in  the  use  of 
his  materials  as  is  the  modern  ?  Yes,  almost  neces- 
sarily ;  for,  as  Lowell  says  : 

The  true  poetic  imagination  is  of  one  quality,  whether  it  be 
ancient  or  modern,  and  equally  subject  to  those  laws  of  grace, 
of  proportion,  of  design,  in  whose  free  service,  and  in  that  alone, 
it  can  become  art.     Those  laws  are  something  which  do  not 

Alter  when  they  alteration  find 

And  bend  with  the  remover  to  remove. 

But  let  us  take  nothing  for  granted  ;  let  us  examine 
for    ourselves    the    Greek    allegory,    with    which    the 


126       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Apostle  Paul  and  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews would  be  acquainted. 

The  most  famous  allegory  of  classical  literature  is 
that  of  "  Er,"  in  the  "  Republic  "  of  Plato,  book  X., 
section  614.  In  this  the  great  philosopher  deals  with 
the  Fates,  or  Parcas,  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  himself, 
giving  them  a  new  interpretation,  in  order  to  illustrate 
his  doctrine  of  the  pre-existence  of  our  souls.  He 
deals  also  in  a  similar  manner  with  characters  which  he 
believes  to  be  strictly  historical,  such  as  Ajax,  Aga- 
memnon, and  Achilles,  bringing  them  back  into  the 
world  in  new  forms,  such  as  each  of  them  might  choose. 
In  addition  to  this  great  allegory,  he  has  that  of  "  The 
Origin  of  Love,"  that  of  "  The  Soul,"  that  of  "  Theuth," 
that  of  "The  Creation  of  Man,"  that  of  "Zamolxis," 
and  others.  No  one  acquainted  with  his  works  can  fail 
to  admire  these  charming  creations,  or  to  perceive  the 
genuine  persuasive  power  which  they  give  his  pages. 
In  all  of  them  he  uses  his  materials  in  the  freest  man- 
ner ;  and  transforms  myth,  legend,  and  history,  to  suit 
any  of  his  purposes. 

In  the  "  Phaedo,"  section  95,  we  have  an  allegory 
not  unlike  that  of  the  Apostle  Paul  in  Galatians,  ex- 
cept that  it  is  much  shorter.  To  understand  it,  we 
must  remember  that  in  the  Greek  mythology,  Harmony 
was  the  wife  of  Cadmus,  and  that  both  were  Thebans 
In  the  "  Phaedo,"  the  two  friendly  opponents  of  Soc- 
rates arc  Simmias  and  Cebes;  they  are  from  Thebes  ; 
and  Simmias  doubts  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  because 
he  holds  it  to  be  a  kind  of  harmony  produced  by  the 
body  ;  it  can  no  more  endure,  therefore,  after  the  body 
is   dissolved,  than  the  harmony  of  the  lyre  after  the 


ALLEGORY  127 

lyre  is  destroyed.  Socrates  answers  this  objection, 
and  then  adds  :  "  Thus  much  of  your  Theban  Harmony, 
who  has  not  been  ungracious  to  us,  I  think ;  but  what 
shall  we  say  to  the  Theban  Cadmus,  and  how  shall  I 
propitiate  him  ? "  Here  Simmias  is  Harmony,  and 
Cebes  is  Cadmus.  Cebes  takes  up  the  allegory  and  car- 
ries it  on,  saying  with  admirable  courtesy  that  Cadmus 
will  share  the  fate  of  Harmony,  that  he  expects  to  be 
defeated  in  the  argument.  To  all  the  speakers  of  the 
dialogue  Harmony  and  Cadmus  were  historical  person- 
ages. The  brief  allegory  turns  upon  the  two  facts 
that  Simmias  and  Cebes  are  of  Thebes,  the  city  of 
Cadmus  and  Harmony,  and  that  Simmias  has  much  to 
say  about  harmony.  The  allegory  thus  depends  in 
part  on  the  geographical  location  of  a  legend  which  was 
believed  to  be  a  history,  and  partly  on  the  meaning  of 
a  proper  name. 

The  fine  allegory  of  "  The  Two  Loves,"  in  the 
"  Symposium,"  section  180,  is  also  worthy  of  our  spe- 
cial study  : 

We  all  know  that  Love  is  inseparable  from  Aphrodite,  and  if 
there  were  only  one  Aphrodite,  there  would  be  only  one  Love  ; 
but  as  there  are  two  goddesses  there  must  be  two  Loves.  For 
am  I  not  right  in  asserting  that  there  are  two  goddesses  ?  The 
elder  one,  having  no  mother,  who  is  called  the  heavenly  Aphro- 
dite, is  the  daughter  of  Uranus  ;  the  younger  is  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Dione,  whom  we  call  common;  and  the  other  Love, 
who  is  her  fellow-worker,  may  and  must  also  have  the  name  of 
common,  as  the  other  is  called  heavenly.  .  .  The  Love  who  is 
the  son  of  the  common  Aphrodite  is  essentially  common  and 
has  no  discrimination,  being  such  as  the  meaner  sort  of  men 
feel  .  .  .  and  is  of  the  body  rather  than  the  soul.  .  .  The  most 
foolish  beings  are  the  objects  of  this  Love.  The  goddess  who 
is  his  mother  is  far  younger,  and  she  was  born  of  the  union  of 


I2S        QUOTATIONS    OF    THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

the  male  and  female,  and  partakes  of  both  sexes.  But  the  son 
of  the  heavenly  Aphrodite  is  sprung  from  a  mother  in  whose 
birth  the  female  has  no  part,  but  she  is  from  the  male  only  .  .  . 
and  the  goddess,  being  older,  has  nothing  of  wantonness. 
Those  who  are  inspired  by  this  Love  turn  to  the  male,  and  de- 
light in  him  who  is  the  more  valiant  and  intelligent  nature. 

This  allegory  of  "The  Two  Loves"  reminds  the 
reader  irresistibly  of  that  of  the  "  two  sons "  of 
Abraham,  the  one  "born  after  the  flesh,"  and  the 
other  "  born  through  promise,"  whose  mothers  repre- 
sent "The  Jerusalem  that  now  is,"  and  "  the  Jerusalem 
that  is  above."  But  it  reminds  us  equally  of  the  alle- 
gory of  Melchizedek,  with  its  explanations  of  the  names 
of  its  characters,  one  being  the  offspring  of  Urania, 
and  hence  of  a  celestial  nature  ;  and  the  other  of  Pan- 
demia, and  hence  necessarily  vulgar.  The  writer  ob- 
serves any  circumstances  connected  with  the  ancestry 
or  the  birth  or  the  activities  of  his  characters,  as  that 
one  inspires  sober  love,  because  older  than  the  other, 
and  a  love  directed  toward  males,  because  the  offspring 
of  a  mother  who  herself  had  no  mother,  but  only  a 
father.  All  these  peculiarities  are  reproduced,  in  the 
two  great  allegories  of  the  New  Testament,  not  by  a 
process  of  imitation,  but  by  the  spontaneous  working 
of  the  literary  instinct  in  the  production  of  allegory. 

In  the  same  work,  Socrates  constructs  an  allegory, 
in  order  to  teach  vividly  and  agreeably  his  doctrine  of 
love.  According  to  him,  love  is  not  the  offspring  of 
Aphrodite  at  all  ;  he  is  her  follower  and  attendant,  be- 
cause he  is  attracted  by  her  beauty,  and  because  he 
happcia-d  to  be  born  on  an  anniversary  of  her  birth- 
day.    He  is  in  fact  the  child  of  Poros,  or   Plenty,  and 


ALLEGORY  129 

Penia,  or  Poverty.  This  is  told  in  the  form  of  a  story. 
Then  follows  the  inference  from  the  names  of  his 
father  and  mother  :  "  As  his  parentage,  so  also  are  his 
fortunes."  Because  in  the  story  his  mother  is  Pov- 
erty, and  is  homeless  and  sleeps  out  of  doors,  he  is 
ever  unsatisfied  and  full  of  wants.  "He  is  always 
poor,  and  anything  but  tender  and  fair,  as  the  many 
imagine  him  ;  and  he  is  hard-featured  and  squalid,  and 
has  no  shoes  nor  a  house  to  dwell  in  ;  on  the  bare  earth 
exposed  he  lies  under  the  open  heaven,  taking  his  rest 
in  the  streets,  or  at  the  doors  of  houses  ;  and  like  his 
mother,  he  is  always  in  distress."  So  also,  because  his 
father  in  the  story  is  named  Plenty,  and  because  plenty 
is  the  result  of  shrewdness  and  industry,  he,  "like  his 
father,  whom  he  partly  resembles,  is  always  plotting 
against  the  fair  and  good  ;  he  is  bold,  enterprising, 
strong,  a  hunter  of  men,  always  at  some  intrigue  or 
other." 

Steele,  in  the  ninetieth  number  of  the  "  Tattler," 
states  with  admirable  spirit  and  some  poetic  embellish- 
ment the  inferences  drawn  by  Socrates  from  the  story  : 

As  love  "is  the  son  of  Plenty,  who  was  the  offspring  of  Pru- 
dence, he  is  subtle,  intriguing,  full  of  stratagems  and  devices;  as 
the  son  of  Poverty,  he  is  fawning,  begging,  serenading,  delight- 
ing to  lie  at  the  threshold  or  beneath  a  window.  By  the  father, 
he  is  audacious,  full  of  hopes,  conscious  of  merit,  and  therefore 
quick  of  resentment.  By  the  mother,  he  is  timorous,  mean- 
spirited,  fearful  of  offending,  and  abject  in  submissions.  In  the 
same  hour  you  may  see  him  transported  with  raptures,  talking 
of  immortal  pleasures,  and  appearing  satisfied  as  a  god  ;  and  im- 
mediately after,  as  the  mortal  mother  prevails  in  his  composi- 
tion, you  behold  him  pining,  languishing,  despairing,  dying." 
"  The  supposing  Love  to  be   conceived  immediately  after  the 


I30       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

birth  of  Beauty;  the  parentage  of  Plenty;  and  the  inconsistency 
of  this  passion  with  itself,  so  naturally  derived  from  it,  are  great 
master-strokes." 

The  reader  will  not  fail  to  observe  that  this  allegory 
turns  chiefly  on  the  names  of  parents. 

The  names  of  the  personages  of  Greek  mythology  play 
an  important  part  in  the  later  allegorical  interpretations 
of  these  ancient  stories.  Miiller,  the  foremost  writer 
on  Greek  mythology,  testifies  that  "the  poets  were  al- 
ways alive  to  the  allegorical  signification  of  the  names ; 
thus  Pindar  humorously  calls  Excuse  a  daughter  of 
Afterthought."  Not  infrequently  the  myth  itself  is  an 
allegory  in  which  the  significance  of  its  proper  names 
has  been  considered  by  its  author  or  authors  ;  for,  as 
Carlyle  says,  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks  is  often  "  a 
play  of  poetic  minds,"  "a  shadowing  forth,  in  allegori- 
cal fable,  in  personification  and  visual  form,  of  what 
such  poetic  minds  had  known  and  felt  of  this  universe." 
Miiller  instances  the  story  of  Prometheus  told  by 
Hesiod  :  "Prometheus,  '  Forethought,' stole  fire  horn 
heaven  and  became  the  instructor  of  man  in  the  indus- 
trious trades  and  useful  arts.  The  gods,  to  frustrate 
the  aim  of  this  striving,  sent  Pandora,  the  'All-gifted,' 
who  found  access  to  Epimetheus,  or  'Afterthought,1 
and  introduced  upon  earth  whatever  evils  are  wont  to 
attend    labor   and  industry."      The  same   great    scholar 

points  out  another  example  in  the  Homeric  fable  of  the 
Litai,  or  "  Humble  Prayers,"  whoarecalled  "  daughters 
of  mighty  Zeus,"  because  the  god  protects  those  who 
implore  his  aid.  "  They  are  represented,"  he  savs, 
"  as  following  with  halting  steps  the  fierce  and  head- 
long Ate,  'Blind  Passion,' who  is  also  called  *  a  daughter 


ALLEGORY  131 

of  Zeus,'  because  he  gives  and  takes  away  reason  ;  and 
as  endeavoring  to  overtake  her  in  order  to  repair  the 
mischief  she  has  occasioned." 

The  names  of  places  in  these  allegories  of  the  Greek 
mythology  are  often  as  significant  as  those  of  persons. 
Says  Muller : 

At  Byzantium  Io  was  said  to  have  grazed  on  the  tongue  of 
land  called  Keras,  "the  Horn,"  at  the  confluence  of  the  streams 
Barbuses  and  Kudarus,  and  to  have  brought  forth  a  daughter, 
Keroessa,  "the  Horned  One,"  mother  of  Byzas,  the  hero  of  the 
city.  It  seems  to  me  clear  that  the  name  Bosporus,  "  Cow- 
ford,"  has  some  connection  with  these  myths,  that  the  Byzan- 
tines applied  it  to  the  strait  in  honor  of  their  legendary  cow,  and 
that  the  tradition  of  Io  having  swum  across  originated  in  this 
way. 

The  legend  of  Io  connected  the  goddess  also  with  the 
Ionian  Sea,  and  thus  accounted  for  its  name.  Io,  the 
cow,  was  "the  horned  moon";  and  the  story  of  her 
wandering  was  originally  but  an  allegory  of  the  changes 
of  this  satellite,  so  mysterious  to  the  early  peoples  of 
the  world.  As  the  story  was  passed  on  from  one  gen- 
eration to  another,  and  was  worked  over  by  various 
writers,  it  lost  its  modest  proportions  and  its  original 
design,  and  became  a  sort  of  awkward  romance  ;  but 
its  real  nature  can  be  discerned  still  beneath  these  later 
incrustations. 

I  might  extend  much  farther  these  examples  of  the 
use  of  proper  names  in  allegory  ;  but  those  which  I 
have  given  are  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  peculiar  work- 
ing of  the  human  mind  when  it  enters  this  ethereal 
region.  Modern  allegory  and  ancient  allegory  exhibit 
these  features  in  common.      Not  that  the  modern  is 


132        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

derived  consciously  from  the  ancient.  The  features 
which  I  have  illustrated  belong  to  allegory  as  such, 
wheresoever  it  is  produced,  and  whensoever,  and  by 
whomsoever.  So  the  biblical  allegories,  exhibiting  the 
same  features,  were  not  formed  in  imitation  of  others  ; 
they  were  the  spontaneous  creations  of  men  not  un- 
acquainted with  the  great  books  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
surrendering  their  minds  to  the  allegorizing  impulse, 
exercising  the  largest  freedom  of  literary  labor,  and 
using  the  materials  of  sacred  history  as  all  writers  of 
allegory  use  the  materials  from  which  they  derive  the 
lessons  they  inculcate. 

We  need  not  analyze  any  more  allegories,  for  those 
which  we  have  already  considered  have  brought  before 
us  abundant  instances  of  such  features  of  the  biblical 
allegories  as  have  been  deemed  somewhat  surprising  by 
persons  not  intimately  acquainted  with  this  species  of 
writing  in  general  literature.  We  have  found  men  long 
since  dead  treated  as  gifted  with  perpetual  life,  like 
Demas  in  the  "  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  and  Zoi'lus,  Anaxa- 
goras,  and  Thales  in  "  Faust."  We  have  found  con- 
stant references  to  the  circumstances  of  birth  and 
ancestry,  as  in  the  allegory  of  "The  Two  Loves,"  the 
celestial  and  the  terrestrial.  We  have  found  so  many 
references  to  the  meaning  of  proper  names,  and  to 
geographical  relations,  that  these  characteristics  seem 
to  ns  more  common  than  any  others.  In  the  light  of 
the  examples  which  we  have  examined,  we  come  bads 
to  the  New  Testament,  and  read  without  surprise  that 
"this  I  lag ar  is  .Mount  Sinai  in  Arabia,  and  answereth 

to  Jerusalem  that   now  is  "  ;   thai   "  the  son  by  the  hand 
maid    is    born   alter  the   flesh,  but    the   son   by  the   free 


ALLEGORY  133 

woman  through  promise";  that  Melchizedek  in  the 
book  of  Genesis  is  "  without  father,  without  mother, 
without  genealogy,  having  neither  beginning  of  days 
nor  end  of  life,"  and  in  this  way  is  "  made  like  unto  the 
Son  of  God";  that  the  name  "Melchizedek"  means 
"king  of  righteousness  "  ;  and  that  the  title,  "King  of 
Salem,"  means  "king  of  peace."  Such  exuberance  of 
fancy,  such  unrestrained  freedom  in  the  use  of  every 
feature  of  the  record,  belongs  to  the  allegory  in  all 
literatures  where  it  exists.  Hence  these  biblical  alle- 
gories are  not  in  any  peculiar  sense  "  in  accordance 
with  the  hermeneutical  methods  of  the  times,"  as  Toy 
represents  them.  In  all  times  and  all  literatures  alle- 
gories have  been  produced  with  the  same  essential 
features,  the  minds  of  their  authors  having  soared  with 
unfettered  wings  through  all  the  airy  realms  of  imagi- 
nation. 

I  might  have  illustrated  these  allegories  further  by 
comparing  them  to  those  of  Philo  and  the  rabbinic 
literature.  This,  however,  has  been  done  by  many 
others  already,  who  have  wholly  forgotten  the  allegories 
of  general  literature,  and  have  sought  to  prove  that  the 
allegorists  of  the  New  Testament  proceeded  in  a  pecu- 
liar and  specially  Jewish  way.  My  purpose  has  been 
the  exact  opposite  ;  and  I  have  shown  that  the  alle- 
gories of  the  New  Testament  are  in  no  sense  rabbinic 
or  Jewish,  but  belong,  in  all  their  characteristics,  to  the 
wide  field  of  allegory  in  the  great  literatures  of  the 
world,  ancient  and  modern.  Indeed,  they  resemble  the 
Gentile  allegories  far  more  closely  than  the  Jewish : 
they  are  sound,  forceful,  and  ingenious,  while  the 
Jewish  allegories  partake  of  the  stupidity  which  char- 


134       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

acterizes  the  Talmud  from  beginning  to  end,  and  which 
I  have  illustrated  in  our  eleventh  chapter.1 

Do  the  writers  of  the  allegories  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment offer  them  as  proofs  of  their  doctrine,  or  only  as 
luminous  embodiments  of  it  ? 

If  we  render  the  Greek  passive  verb  used  in  Gal. 
4  :  24  with  the  lexicons,  and  read,  "  Which  things  have 
an  allegorical  meaning,"  we  shall  find  the  allegory  in 
the  original  history,  and  shall  perhaps  conclude  that 
the  Apostle  Paul  brought  it  forward  as  evidence  of  his 
teaching.  But  this  definition  of  the  Greek  word,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  not  necessary,  and  may  be  inapplicable  in 
this  place. 

The  other  arguments  of  those  who  tell  us  that  the 
New  Testament  writers  present  their  allegories  as 
proofs  of  doctrine  are  much  weaker  than  this.  Take 
for  example  the  following  sentence  from  Davidson  : 

Apologists  try  to  blunt  the  edge  of  these  facts  in  their  bearing 
on  the  nature  of  the  writer's  inspiration  by  saying  that  alle- 
gorical   interpretations   are    used    as    illustrations    rather   than 

1  If  a  further  reason  were  needed  for  my  somewhat  prolonged  study  of 
the  (Jreek  allegory  in  this  place.it  might  !><.•  found  in  the  fact,  demon- 
strated by  such  scholars  as  Turretin,  Eichhorn,  Politz,  Rosenmiiller, 
s.  hut/,  Flilgge,  and  D5pke,  that  the  Jewish  allegorical  interpretation  of 
tin-  ( )ld  Testament  had  its  origin  in  the  <  rreek  allegorical  interpretation  or 
I  [omer  and  I  tesiod,  and  was  not  thought  of  till  the  Jews  came  into  contact 
with  Greek  literature;  so  that  even  the  rabbinic  allegory  is  not  exclusively 
[ewish,  since  it  was  born  and  nurtured  in  the  tents  of  Japhet,  and  ad 
by  the  suns  (if  Shem  only  as  a  foreigner;  useful,  but  constrained,  out  of 
place,  and  longing  foi  home  I  bus,  if  the  allegories  of  the  v  n  1 1  sta 
in. -nt  were  rabbinic,  which  they  are  not,  it  would  be  necessary  still  to 
examine  their  ( rreek  parentage  in  order  to  understand  them,  as  we  he<  ome 
truly  acquainted  with   a  man  duly  when  we  know  l>w   ancestrj      See 

DOpke's  "  Hermencutil.  del   Dl JUtJ    1  amcntlichcn  S<_  hrillstcllcr,"  p.  104. 


ALLEGORY  1 35 

arguments  ;  forgetting  that  with    Paul  there  was  no  difference 
between  the  two. 

How  does  Davidson  know  "  that  with  Paul  there  was 
no  difference  between  the  two  "  ?  Has  he  had  some 
special  revelation  touching  this  matter  ?  The  distinc- 
tion is  one  of  the  commonplaces  of  human  thought, 
and  is  recognized  everywhere,  even  by  children  and 
savages.  Was  the  apostle  then  so  feeble  in  mind  as 
not  to  be  aware  of  it  ? 

Let  us  take  another  reason  adduced  by  the  same 
author  : 

To  the  apostle's  mind  objective  and  subjective  were  one.  He 
treated  the  history  as  a  pure  allegory  without  an  objective  basis. 
Such  exegesis  was  not  peculiar  to  him.  It  was  that  of  his  time 
and  contemporaries.  The  typical  sense  in  which  he  understood 
the  narrative  did  not  deserve  another;  it  was  the  only  one,  ac- 
cording to  the  apostle,  who  looked  upon  the  symbolical  repre- 
sentation as  the  conveyancer  of  abstract  truth,  not  of  historical 
facts. 

Passing  by  the  statement  that  "the  apostle's  mind  " 
was  incapable  of  distinguishing  "objective  and  sub- 
jective," the  tree  of  the  mountain  from  the  tree  of  his 
imagination,  the  Sarah  of  real  life  from  the  Sarah  of 
his  thoughts,  let  us  ask  what  is  the  value  of  the  other 
statement  that  he  regarded  history  as  allegory,  and 
hence  used  it  as  evidence  of  Christian  doctrine,  be- 
cause his  contemporaries  treated  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  same  manner?  In  the  first  place,  "his  contem- 
poraries" did  not  always  treat  the  Old  Testament  his- 
tory in  this  manner.  It  is  true  that  Philo  sometimes 
regarded  a  narrative  of  the  Old  Testament  as  in  itself 
purely  allegorical ;  but  sometimes,  again,  he  admitted 


136       QUOTATIONS  OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

the  historical  character  of  a  narrative  even  while  em- 
ploying it  as  the  basis  of  an  allegory.  It  is  true  that 
the  Jewish  rabbis  did  the  same,  and  often  produced 
their  allegories  as  evidences  of  their  doctrines.  The 
most  that  can  be  said  is  that  "  his  contemporaries " 
wavered.  But  let  us  admit  for  a  moment  that  "  his 
contemporaries  "  "treated  the  history  as  pure  allegory 
without  an  objective  basis,"  and  hence  as  proof  and  not 
as  illustration,  and  examine  the  argument  derived  from 
the  statement.  Let  us  say  that  we  know  "  his  contem- 
poraries "  did  this  because  their  works  show  it.  We 
are  asked,  then,  to  believe  that  the  apostle  did  the  same 
thing,  not  because  his  works  show  it,  but  because  the 
works  of  Philo  and  the  rabbis  show  that  they  did  it. 
Or,  let  us  say  that  they  wavered  in  their  views  con- 
cerning the  historic  verity  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
ratives, for  this  is  the  exact  truth.  Does  it  follow 
that  the  Apostle  Paul  wavered  in  his  views  concerning 
the  historic  verity  of  the  Old  Testament  narratives  ? 
We  know  that  Philo  and  the  rabbis  wavered  thus,  be- 
cause their  writings  show  it.  According  to  the  method 
of  reasoning  pursued  by  Davidson,  we  ought  to  believe 
that  the  apostle  wavered,  not  because  his  writings 
show  it,  but  because  it  is  known  that  Philo  and  the 
rabbis  wavered.  This  is  a  remarkable  kind  of  logic, 
and  only  needs^to  be  exhibited.  Not  only  is  there  no 
trace  of  such  wavering  in  the  writings  <>f  the  apostle, 
and  no  trace  of  any  servile  imitation  of  the  rabbis, 
but  there  is  abundant  evidence  in  these  productions 
that  ln's  modes  of  thought  in  general  were  Utterly  op- 
posed to  theirs,  and  that  he  contended  againsl  many  of 
their  views  from   the   beginning   to  the  end  of   his  min- 


ALLEGORY  1 37 

istry.  If,  therefore,  the  appeal  is  made  to  mere  prob- 
ability, without  any  other  evidence,  that  he  regarded 
the  narratives  of  the  Old  Testament  as  allegory  rather 
than  history,  and  hence  as  proof  of  doctrine,  the  deci- 
sion must  be  against  the  supposition. 

In  the  utter  absence  of  all  evidence  to  the  contrary, 
then,  we  ought  to  suppose  that  the  allegories  of  the 
New  Testament  are  like  the  allegories  of  literature  in 
general,  merely  luminous  embodiments  of  the  truth. 
If  it  be  asked  what  they  prove,  I  ask  in  return,  what  is 
proved  by  the  "  Faerie  Oueene  "  or  the  "  Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress "  ?  In  neither  is  there  any  proof  of  a  historic,  a 
syllogistic,  or  a  mathematical  kind ;  and  neither  is 
there,  I  am  persuaded,  in  these  great  allegories  of  the 
New  Testament.  Yet,  as  the  "  Faerie  Queene  "  and 
the  "Pilgrim's  Progress"  make  a  deep  and  salutary 
impression  upon  the  mind  of  the  reader,  so  do  the  alle- 
gories of  the  New  Testament.  Luther  says  that  the 
Apostle  Paul  was  "  a  marvelous  cunning  workman  in 
the  handling  of  allegories."  He  continues:  "Alle- 
gories do  not  strongly  persuade  in  divinity ;  but,  like 
pictures,  they  beautify  and  set  out  the  matter."  "  It  is 
a  seemly  thing  to  add  an  allegory  when  the  foundation 
is  well  laid  and  the  matter  thoroughly  proved."  ,  We 
discover  truth  not  merely  by  the  logical  processes  of 
the  intellect,  but  also  through  the  imagination  and  the 
emotions  ;  and  hence  the  Scriptures  address  all  our 
powers  of  reason,  of  imagination,  and  of  emotion.  But 
the  imagination  and  the  emotions  have  yet  another  office  : 
when  the  truth  is  demonstrated  to  the  mind,  it  may  re- 
main without  operation  upon  the  character  and  the 
conduct  ;  and   it   must   still    be  taken    into    the   soul, 


I38       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

through  fear,  through  hope,  through  love,  through  the 
sense  of  propriety  and  beauty  ;  so  that  a  large  part  of 
Holy  Scripture  is  employed  not  in  revealing  the  truth, 
or  in  proving  it,  but  in  commending  it.  If  the  preacher 
merely  proved  the  truth  of  the  gospel,  and  ceased  to 
speak,  he  would  not  win  a  single  soul  to  Christ ;  when 
he  has  ended  his  proofs,  he  has  but  begun  his  real  task  ; 
he  must  go  on  to  warn  and  entreat  and  constrain,  with 
all  the  fervor  of  him  "  who  loved  us  and  gave  himself 
for  us."  If  these  allegories  are  not  presented  by  their 
writers  as  evidences,  they  are  none  the  less  precious, 
since  they  illuminate  the  truth  otherwise  evinced,  and 
thus  render  it  at  once  clear  to  the  apprehension  and  at- 
tractive to  the  taste.  Allegories,  as  Addison  has  said,1 
"  when  well  chosen,  are  like  so  many  tracks  of  light 
in  a  discourse,  that  make  everything  about  them  clear 
and  beautiful." 

1  "Spectator,"  number  421. 


VIII 

QUOTATIONS    BY    SOUND 

IN  this  chapter  I  shall  consider  the  statement  that 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  sometimes 
"  quote  by  sound  without  regard  to  the  sense."  Kuenen, 
who  employs  this  language,  does  not  charge  that  the 
passages  in  question  are  quoted  for  proof ;  but  he 
seems  to  hold  that  even  in  quotations  for  purposes 
strictly  rhetorical  the  reference  of  the  original  passage 
should  be  rigidly  preserved.  I  shall  fortify  my  answer 
to  the  difficulty  thus  raised  by  so  large  an  array  of  ex- 
amples in  ancient  and  modern  literature  as  ought  com- 
pletely to  remove  it.  Instances  of  the  kind  which  I 
am  about  to  adduce  are  exceedingly  abundant ;  and  I 
have  rejected  many  which  I  might  have  employed  had 
space  permitted.  Those  which  I  present  cover  a  wide 
range  of  occasions  and  of  purposes  ;  they  are  caused 
by  the  desire  to  decorate,  to  illustrate,  to  shine  with 
wit,  to  carry  an  audience  by  eloquence,  or  to  puzzle  the 
unwary  and  stimulate  them  to  criticism.  But  they  are 
all  alike  in  that  they  give  a  reference  to  the  language 
quoted  which  its  author  would  not  recognize  as  his  own  ; 
and  in  this  respect  they  are  quotations  "by  sound," 
rather  than  "by  sense."  The  persons  who  bring  for- 
ward the  difficulty  with  which  I  here  deal  must  have 
come  upon  hundreds  of  such  passages,  if  they  have 
read  any  literature  of  any  people ;  but  they  have  not 

139 


I40        QUOTATIONS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 

observed,  apparently  because  they  have  not  read  crit- 
ically. 

There  are  three  cases  to  consider :  first,  a  change  of 
reference  without  a  change  of  the  language  quoted,  or 
of  the  meaning  of  its  separate  words  ;  secondly,  a 
change  of  reference  effected  by  a  slight  change  of  the 
language ;  and  thirdly,  a  change  of  reference  effected 
by  giving  new  meanings  to  the  pivotal  words. 

I.  I  shall  first  produce  instances  of  a  change  of  refer- 
ence which  does  not  involve  any  material  change  of  the 
words  quoted,  or  of  the  senses  in  which  the  original 
writer  employed  them. 

1.  Southey,  in  "The  Doctor,"  has,  without  explana- 
tion, this  example,  in  which  he  applies  to  the  minute 
and  strange  forms  of  animal  life  revealed  by  the  micro- 
scope these  lines  of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  written  with 
reference  to  demons  in  hell  : 

The  forms  which  are  thus  discovered  might  well  be  called 
Abominable,  unutterable,  and  worse 
Than  fables  yet  have  feigned,  or  fear  conceived, 
Gorgons  and  Hydras,  and  Chimseras  dire. 

Here  every  word  of  the  quotation  preserves  the  sense 
in  which  it  is  employed  by  Milton,  while  the  passage  is 
made  to  describe  objects  of  whose  existence  he  was 
absolutely  ignorant. 

2.  Gladstone,  in  his  "Gleanings  of  Past  Years," 
Vol.  VII.,  ]>.  34,  speaks  of  great  men  who  influence  us 
even  in  their  early  life,  and  applies  to  them  a  line  of 
Lycidas  which  refers  only  to  the  morning  star : 

Otlicrs  there  have  been  who,  from   the  time  when  their  young 
li\e3  first,  as  it  were,  peeped  over  the  horizon,  seemed  at  once  to 
Flame  in  the  forehead  <■!  the  morning  >ky. 


QUOTATIONS    BY   SOUND  141 

3.  In  his  "Gleanings  of  Past  Years,"  Vol.  IV., 
P-  339>  ne  closes  his  paper  on  Montenegro  by  saying  : 

Miss  Mackenzie  and  Miss  Irby  were  able  to  bestow  far  more 
of  time  and  care  on  a  subject  well  worthy  of  them,  and  have 
probably  made  by  much  the  most  valuable  contribution  extant 
in  our  language,  under  this,  as  under  other  heads,  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  those  South  Slavonic  provinces  whose  future  will,  we 
may  humbly  trust,  redeem  the  miseries  of  their  past.  "Whereas 
thou  hast  been  forsaken  and  hated,  so  that  no  man  went  through 
thee,  I  will  make  thee  an  eternal  excellency,  a  joy  of  many 
generations." 

4.  Lowell,  in  his  "Among  My  Books,"  p.  353, 
speaks  of  the  fears  expressed  by  Burke  and  Johnson 
when  the  influence  of  Rousseau  first  made  itself  felt  in 
the  literary  world,  and  quotes  the  words  of  Macbeth  : 

Neither  of  them  had  the  same  feeling  toward  Voltaire,  the 
man  of  supreme  talent,  but  both  felt  that  what  Rousseau  was 
possessed  by  was  genius,  with  its  terrible  force  either  to  attract 
or  repel. 

By  the  pricking  of  my  thumbs, 

Something  wicked  this  way  comes. 

5.  Often  the  writer,  in  quoting  thus  for  the  purpose 
of  decoration,  and  employing  the  quotation  in  a  sense 
foreign  to  that  which  it  first  conveyed,  accompanies  it 
with  a  comment  based  altogether  on  its  new  meaning 
without  giving  a  hint  of  the  old.  For  example,  Robert 
Hall,  in  his  sermon  "  On  the  Work  of  the  Holy  Spirit," 
has  the  following  passage,  dissuading  his  hearers  from 
"  grieving  the  Spirit  of  God  "  : 

We  may  fitly  say  on  this,  as  Paul  did  on  a  different  occasion, 
"Who  is  he  that  maketh  us  glad,  but  the  same  that  is  made 
sorry  by  us  ? "  Have  we  any  other  Comforter  when  he  is  with- 
drawn ? 


142       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Here  the  greatest  of  the  English  preachers  reproduces 
a  sentence  written  at  first  with  reference  to  the  sinning 
church  at  Corinth,  which  had  been  "  made  sorry  "  by 
the  rebukes  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  He  applies  it  to  the 
Holy  Spirit  without  any  statement  that  he  is  violently 
changing  its  application,  and  then  proceeds  to  comment 
upon  it  at  some  length,  quite  as  if  it  were  designed 
from  of  old  for  the  purpose  for  which  he  employs  it. 

6.  Johnson,  in  number  34  of  his  "  Adventurer," 
warns  his  readers  against  a  vicious  life,  which  leads  to 
wretchedness  from  which  there  is  no  return,  and  ap- 
plies to  it  the  lines  in  which  Virgil,  in  the  "zEneid," 
book  VI.,  line  126,  describes  the  way  to  A  vermis  : 

Facilis  descensus  Averni  ; 
Noctes  atque  dies  patet  atri  janua  Ditis  : 
Sed  revocare  gradum,  superasque  evadere  ad  auras, 
Hoc  opus,  hie  labor  est. 

Cranch  translates  the  passage  as  follows  : 
Easy  the  way 
Down  to  Avernus  ;  night  and  day  the  gates 
Of  Dis  stand  open.      But  to  retrace  thy  steps 
And  reach  the  upper  air,  here  lies  the  task, 
The  difficulty  here. 

Since  the  days  of  Johnson  this  passage  has  been 
employed  a  thousand  times  by  as  many  writers,  to  rep- 
resent the  irretrievable  ruin  caused  by  wastefulness  and 
immorality;  and  always,  as  in  thisinstanee.it  is  torn 
from  its  first  connection  and  associated  with  a  new 
theme,  but  with  no  explanation. 

7.  Edward  Everett,  in  lus  "Mount  Vernon  Papers," 
has  two  chapters  on  "Seven  Critical  Occasions  and 
Incidents  in  the  Life  of  Washington,"  illustrating  the 


QUOTATIONS    BY   SOUND  143 

doctrine  of  Divine  providence.  At  the  close  of  the 
first,  after  narrating  the  dangers  which  young  Wash- 
ington encountered  during  his  expedition  through  un- 
inhabited lands  to  Venango,  in  1753,  he  quotes  from 
"  Paradise  Regained,"  the  words  in  which,  according  to 
Milton,  God  declares  his  purpose  to  permit  the  ex- 
posure of  Christ  to  temptation,  and  he  employs  them 
quite  as  if  they  had  been  uttered  originally  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Father  of  his  Country  : 

To  exercise  him  in  the  wilderness  ; 
There  shall  he  first  lay  down  the  rudiments 
Of  this  great  warfare,  ere  I  send  him  forth 
To  conquer. 

Here  the  word  "wilderness"  is  used  by  Milton  and 
Everett  in  the  same  sense.  New  senses,  however,  are 
given  by  Everett  to  "warfare"  and  "conquer."  Mil- 
ton uses  them  in  the  second  of  the  senses  now  given 
in  "  Webster's  International  Dictionary,"  and  Everett 
in  the  first.  The  quotation  is  thus  a  good  example  of 
both  the  first  and  third  kinds  examined  in  this  chapter. 

8.  In  the  "  Theaetetus  "  of  Plato,  section  152,  Soc- 
rates, by  his  skillful  questioning,  draws  from  one  of 
his  hearers  the  doctrine  that  all  things  are  the  product 
of  motion.      He  says  : 

Summon  all  philosophers — Protagoras,  Heraclitus,  Emped- 
ocles,  and  the  rest  of  them,  one  after  another,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Parmenides — and  they  will  agree  with  you  in  this.  Sum- 
mon the  great  masters  of  either  kinds  of  poetry — Epicharmus, 
the  prince  of  comedy,  and  Homer,  of  tragedy  ;  when  the  latter 
sings  of 

Ocean,  the  sire  of  gods,  and  mother  Thetys, 

does  he  not  mean  that  all  things  are  the  offspring  of  flux  and 
motion  ? 


144       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Socrates  is  well  aware  that  this  is  not  the  meaning 
of  Homer,  for  two  reasons.  First,  Homer  makes 
Ocean  and  Thetys  the  parents  only  of  inferior  deities, 
not  of  the  greater.  Then  again,  he  himself  does  not 
believe  that  "all  things  are  the  offspring  of  flux,"  and 
he  is  going  soon  to  disprove  the  assertion.  Ocean  was 
called  the  "  sire  of  gods,"  because  such  a  troop  of  infe- 
rior deities  sprang  from  him.  But  Socrates  quotes  the 
phrase  "sire  of  gods"  as  if  it  meant  "sire  of  all  the 
gods."  He  uses  it  not  without  a  certain  humor,  as  it 
was  probably  much  quoted  by  those  whose  teaching  he 
is  about  to  oppose  ;  and  this  is  purely  a  case  of  "  quota- 
tion by  sound,  without  regard  to  the  real  meaning." 
The  meanings  of  all  the  words  are  preserved  in  the 
quotation,  but  it  is  caused  by  Socrates  to  refer  to  a 
doctrine  of  which  the  poet  had  never  heard. 

9.  In  Plutarch's  dialogue  on  "The  Face  Appearing 
in  the  Orb  of  the  Moon,"  Sylla  teaches  that  man  is  a 
tripartite  being,  composed  of  body,  soul,  and  under- 
standing, the  first  perishing  at  the  first  death,  the 
second  being  deserted  at  the  second  death,  and  linger- 
ing in  a  doubtful  and  shadowy  existence  in  the  moon, 
and  the  last  only  having  real  immortality.  In  the 
course  of  his  argument  he  appeals  to  Homer: 

Of  all  that  lie  ever  wrote  there  is  not  any  passage  more  divine 
than  that  in  which,  speaking  of  those  who  are  departed  this  life, 

Nexl  these  I  saw  Alcides'  image  move; 
Himself  i^  with  the  immortal  gods  above. 

I  17  Greek  reader  of  Plutarch  knew  at  once  that 
Homer  is  not  here  "speaking  of  those  who  are  de- 
parted this  life,"  but  only  of  Hercules,  whose   im 


QUOTATIONS    BY   SOUND  145 

was  left  in  hades  when  he  himself  was  deified.  The 
whole  passage  was  one  of  the  most  famous  and  familiar 
of  the  Odyssey,  and  every  one  knew  that  it  repre- 
sents the  dead  in  general  as  souls  that  had  departed 
from  the  body.  The  lines  about  Hercules,  however, 
were  a  fine  illustration  to  the  ear  of  the  doctrine  that 
man  is  a  threefold  being  and  that  there  is  an  event 
after  death  which  may  be  likened  to  another  death,  the 
parting  of  the  immortal  mind  from  a  shadowy  soul. 
The  reference  of  the  passage  is  changed,  while  the 
senses  of  its  words  remain  the  same. 

10.  In  Plutarch's  treatise  on  "  The  Delay  of  the  Di- 
vine Justice,"  section  17,  he  argues  that  the  soul  is  im- 
mortal, and  says  : 

If  we  had  nothing  of  the  divine  within  us,  nothing  that  in  the 
least  resembled  his  perfection,  nothing  permanent  and  stable, 
but  were  only  poor  creatures,  that,  as  Homer  says,  faded  and 
dropped  like  the  withered  leaves. 

The  reference  is  to  the  "Iliad,"  VI.,  146.  The 
whole  passage  is  as  follows  in  Bryant's  translation  : 

Like  the  race  of  leaves 
Is  that  of  human  kind.      Upon  the  ground 
The  winds  strew  one  year's  leaves;  the  sprouting  wood 
Puts  forth  another  brood,  that  sprout  and  grow 
In  the  spring  season.      So  it  is  with  man: 
One  generation  grows  while  one  decays. 

As  far  as  the  sound  of  these  words  is  concerned, 
they  might  be  employed  with  either  of  two  references, 
with  either  of  two  diverse  thoughts  in  the  mind  :  they 
might  refer  to  man  as  possessed  of  a  mortal  body  and 
an  immortal  soul,  or  to  man  as  wholly  mortal,  both  in 


146       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

body  and  soul.  Homer  has  the  former  reference  in 
mind  ;  but  Plutarch  cites  the  passage  as  fitted  to  illus- 
trate the  latter.  He  then  proceeds  to  comment  upon 
it  adversely.  Hackett  writes  as  follows  in  his  note  on 
the  quotation  : 

Plutarch  reads  the  passage  manifestly  as  it  meets  the  eye,  and 
accommodates  it  to  his  purpose.  The  poet  affirms  nothing 
there  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  soul.  He  is  speaking  merely 
of  human  life  and  the  rapid  manner  in  which  the  different  gen- 
erations of  men  pass  away,  one  after  another.  The  distinction, 
however,  between  the  soul  and  the  body,  which  he  is  not  led  tc 
notice  in  this  passage,  he  asserts  fully  elsewhere,  as  also  the 
kindred  truths  of  the  soul's  future  existence  and  a  state  of  re- 
wards and  punishments  hereafter. 

11.  The  first  line  of  this  passage  is  quoted  in  still 
another  alien  sense  in  Strabo,  book  XIV.,  section  51. 
Speaking  of  Caunus,  he  writes  : 

Stories  of  the  following  kind  arc  related  respecting  the  city. 
Stratonicus,  the  player  on  the  cithera,  seeing  the  Caunians 
somewhat  dark  and  yellow,  said  that  this  was  what  the  poet 
meant  in  the  line: 

As  arc  the  leaves,  so  is  the  race  of  men. 

Homer  had  no  thought  of  the  color  of  the  falling 
leaves,  nor  of  the  citizens  of  Caunus;  and  the  satire 
of  Stratonicus  gains  sharpness  and  force  by  this  new 
application  (if  the  familiar  line.  His  assertion  that 
"this  was  what  the  poet  meant  "  is  a  part  of  the  satire, 
and  is  an  assertion  only  in  form. 

12.  In  the  "  .Kncid,"  VI.,  275,  Virgil  says  that  "be- 
fore the  COUrtS  of  hades,  and  in  its  jaws,  grief  and 
vengeful  cares  have  fixed  their  conches,  and  pale  dis- 
eases dwell,  and  disconsolate  old   age."      Seneca,  in  his 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  147 

one  hundred  and  seventh  letter,  quotes  the  lines  quite 
as  if  they  referred  to  this  world  ;  he  changes  the  refer- 
ence of  the  word  hades,  but  one  would  hardly  say  that 
he  changes  its  meaning. 

13.  In  Cicero's  "Letters  to  Atticus,"  II.,  16,  he  speaks 
of  the  beginning  of  a  letter  as  differing  immensely 
from  the  end,  and  throws  in  part  of  the  line  in  which 
Homer  describes  the  Chimaera,  "Iliad,"  VI.,  181  : 

In  front  a  lion;  but  behind 

14.  In  the  same  letter  Cicero  speculates  about  the 
plans  of  Gnseus,  one  of  his  acquaintances,  with  whose 
political  conduct  he  is  perplexed,  and  quotes  what  is 
said  by  Sophocles,  Fragm.  753,  of  an  actor: 

He  plays  no  more  on  tiny  treble  pipes, 

But  roars  with  wild  blast  his  uncurbed  storm  of  sound. 

Cicero's  works  are  full  of  these  quotations  from  the 
poets  for  mere  decoration,  and  he  uses  them  often  with 
much  wit. 

I  shall  now  discuss  those  quotations  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament which  are  said  by  some  writers  to  be  of  this 
kind.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  reference  of  them  to 
this  class  is  not  justified  in  every  case,  and  that, 
where  it  has  good  grounds,  they  are  not  extreme  in- 
stances of  the  practice  which  I  have  illustrated. 

1.  In  Matt.  21:9;  Mark  11:9;  Luke  19  :  38  and 
John  12  :  13,  is  a  line  from  Ps.  118  :  26,  quoted  by  "the 
multitudes  that  went  before  him  and  that  followed," 
when  Christ  entered  Jerusalem  in  lowly  triumph  : 

Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 


148       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  psalm  was  one  of  a  series  of  psalms  sung  at  the 
Passover  and  called  "the  great  Hallel."  It  was  ap- 
propriate to  any  sacred  festival.  Perhaps  it  was  com- 
monly used  respectively  by  the  people  approaching  the 
temple  and  by  the  choir  of  priests  who  received  them 
with  the  words  quoted.  On  this  occasion  the  multi- 
tudes felt  rhat  the  line  was  especially  applicable  to 
Jesus,  whom  they  hailed  as  the  Messiah.  In  Matt. 
2 3  :  39>  Jesus,  remembering  that  the  people  had  re- 
ceived him  with  these  words,  takes  leave  of  Jerusalem 
with  a  prediction  in  which  he  applies  them  to  himself, 
precisely  as  in  the  instances  that  I  have  cited  from 
general  literature  words  spoken  on  one  occasion  are 
used  with  reference  to  other  occasions  to  which  they 
are  appropriate. 

2.  In  Mark  9  :  48  our  Lord  weaves  into  his  dis- 
course a  sentence  from  Isa.  66  :  24  :  "  Where  their 
worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched."  He 
does  not  say  that  it  is  a  quotation,  or  adduce  it  for 
proof.  He  finds  the  language  adapted  to  set  forth 
vividly  the  sufferings  of  the  lost,  and  hence  employs  it, 
though,  if  taken  literally,  it  is  designed  by  the  prophet 
to  picture  the  perpetual  burning  of  the  carcasses  of  the 
ungodly.  It  may  be  questioned,  however,  whether  the 
passage  of  the  prophecy  is  to  be  taken  literal] v.  The 
whole  context  refers  to  the  Messianic  age,  which  it  rep- 
resents by  means  of  a  series  of  images  of  blessing  on 
the  one  hand  and  of  wretchedness  on  the  other.  As 
the  blessings  are  represented  symbolically,  so  is  the 
wretchedness  ;  and  it  may  be  that  the  perpetual  gnaw- 
ing of  the  carcasses  by  the  worm  and  the  perpetual 
burning  of  them  in  the  flame  are  intended  by  the  Holy 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND  1 49 

Spirit  to  bring  before  us  eternal  woes.  In  this  case 
the  employment  of  the  words  by  our  Lord  would  be 
strictly  in  keeping  with  their  employment  by  the 
prophet,  and  an  interpretation  of  them.  I  place  the 
quotation  in  this  chapter,  however,  because  it  is  so 
often  regarded  as  an  adaptation  of  the  prophetic  lan- 
guage to  a  new  theme. 

3.  Another  instance  of  this  kind  is  possibly  found 
at  Rom.  2  :  24,  where  Isa.  52  :  5  is  quoted  with  an  ap- 
plication not  made  by  the  Old  Testament  writer  :  "  The 
name  of  God  is  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles  through 
you,  as  it  is  written."  The  name  of  God  was  blas- 
phemed among  the  Gentiles  of  the  apostolic  age  through 
the  crimes  of  the  Jews,  to  which  the  Apostle  Paul  has 
just  referred.  In  the  time  looked  at  by  the  prophet, 
however,  the  name  of  God  was  blasphemed  among  the 
Gentiles,  because  the  Jews,  the  people  of  God,  were 
carried  into  captivity,  and  it  seemed  that  their  God  was 
not  able  to  save  them.  Thus  the  point  of  view  of  the 
prophet  is  not  exactly  the  same  with  that  of  the  apostle 
who  uses  his  words.  The  supposition  of  Meyer  that 
the  apostle  adopts  the  expression  of  the  prophet  as  ap- 
propriate, without  regard  to  the  original  circumstances 
which  gave  rise  to  it,  is  therefore  well  supported. 
Meyer  finds  an  evidence  of  this  illustrative  appropria- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  language  in  the  fact  that 
the  formula  of  citation,  "as  it  is  written,"  stands  at  the 
end  of  the  phrase,  instead  of  at  the  beginning,  where 
it  is  always  placed  in  cases  of  formal  quotations  for  the 
sake  of  proof. 

I  accept  this  view.  Yet  I  think  it  worthy  of  notice 
that  the  blaspheming  of  the  name  of  God  in  the  days  of 


150       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

Isaiah,  while  it  had  its  immediate  occasion  in  the 
weakness  of  the  captive  people,  was  really  caused  by 
their  sins,  for  which  they  were  delivered  over  to  their 
enemies.  Nowhere  does  this  appear  more  clearly  than 
in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  from  which  the  apostle 
quotes.  The  blasphemy  in  the  two  cases,  therefore, 
was  more  nearly  akin  than  one  might  suppose  at  the 
first  glance,  and  those  cannot  be  censured  who  find 
something  in  the  quotation  besides  the  mere  adoption 
of  appropriate  language. 

4.  Another  instance  is  the  quotation  of  Isa.  52  :  7 
at  Rom.  10  :  15  :  "As  it  is  written,  How  beautiful  are 
the  feet  of  them  that  bring  glad  tidings  of  good  things." 
The  prophet  refers  to  the  messengers  who  should  ap- 
pear on  the  mountains  near  Jerusalem  to  announce  the 
speedy  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  exile. 
The  fact  that  the  rabbis  regarded  the  passage  as  Mes- 
sianic has  led  many  to  the  assertion  that  the  apostle 
takes  the  same  view  of  it.  Thus  Hodge  says  that  the 
prophetic  passage 

is  one  of  those  numerous  prophetic  declarations  which  an- 
nounce in  general  terms  the  coming  deliverance  of  the  church,  a 
deliverance  which  embraced,  as  the  first  stage  of  its  accomplish- 
ment, the  restoration  from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  This,  how- 
ever, is  so  far  from  being  the  blessing  principally  intended,  that 
it  derived  all  its  value  from  being  introductory  to  that  more 
glorious  deliverance  to  be  effected  by  the  Redeemer. 

There  can  be  no  objection  to  this  view,  for,  as  I  have 
shown  in  the  chapter  on  double  reference,  there  are 
many  passages  of  Scripture  which  look  at  some  near 
event  and  also  glance  forward  to  "  some  far  off  event." 
The  apostle,  however,  does  not   say  that  lie  regards  the 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  151 

passage  as  Messianic,  and  it  is  a  sufficient  explanation 
of  his  use  of  it  to  suppose  it  introduced  into  the  epistle 
for  rhetorical  purposes  only.  Thus  Toy  says  that  the 
writer  "  perhaps  merely  adopts  the  words  as  appropriate 
to  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,"  and  adds  that  "the 
introductory  formula,  '  as  it  is  written,'  may  be  taken 
either  way." 

5.  At  1  Cor.  2  :  9,  the  Apostle  Paul,  speaking  of  the 
fact  that  God  had  kept  as  a  mystery  his  great  love  and 
his  plan  of  carrying  it  out  in  the  salvation  of  the  lost, 
till  Christ  came,  says  : 

But  as  it  is  written  : 

Things  which  eye  saw  not,  and  ear  heard  not, 
And  which  entered  not  into  the  heart  of  man, 
Whatsoever  things  God  prepared  for  them  that  love  him. 

Whence  are  these  words  derived  ?  There  is  a  pas- 
sage verbally  somewhat  like  them  at  Isa.  64  :  4  :  "  For 
from  of  old  men  have  not  heard,  nor  perceived  by  the 
ear,  neither  hath  the  eye  seen  a  God  beside  thee,  which 
worketh  for  him  that  waiteth  for  him."  Toy  gives  this 
as  the  passage  quoted,  with  no  hint  that  any  other  view 
is  possible,  and  then  goes  on  to  say  : 

The  prophet,  picturing  the  desolation  of  the  exile,  wishes  that 
God  would  intervene  on  his  people's  behalf,  and  refers  to  the 
great  things  of  which  he  is  capable — probably  with  allusion  to 
the  preceding  history  of  Israel — for  those  who  wait  trustfully  for 
his  help.  Such  great  things  God  has  prepared,  says  the  apostle, 
in  the  mystery,  formerly  hidden  but  now  revealed,  of  salvation 
in  Christ,  which  is  the  wisdom  of  God,  unsuspected  by  the  wise 
men  of  the  world,  but  made  known  to  the  believer  by  the  Spirit. 
This  he  finds  expressed  in  the  words  of  the  prophet,  and  he 
freely  alters  the  original  to  suit  his  argument. 


152       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  comment  of  Toy  is  thus  threefold  :  (i)  That  the 
apostle  finds  in  an  Old  Testament  passage  that  which 
it  does  not  contain  ;  (2)  that  he  quotes  it  as  a  proof-text 
to  support  an  argument  ;  and  (3)  that  he  freely  alters 
it  to  make  it  suit  his  argument. 

To  this  I  answer  :  (1)  It  is  not  at  all  certain  that  the 
quotation  here  is  from  any  part  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Origen  and  other  Fathers  attribute  it  to  the  "  Revela- 
tion of  Elias,"  an  extra-canonical  book  now  lost  ;  and 
Zacharias  of  Chrysopolis  declares  that  he  had  read  the 
words  in  this  book.  With  this  agree  the  great  critics 
Schrader,  Bleek,  Ewald,  and  Meyer,  among  the  moderns. 
It  is  true  that  nowhere  else  does  the  Apostle  Paul 
apply  the  formula,  "as  it  is  written,"  to  a  quotation 
from  an  uncanonical  source  ;  but  there  is  nothing  in 
the  formula  itself  to  forbid  him  to  use  it  as  an  intro- 
duction to  any  sort  of  quotation  from  any  source  what- 
ever. Yet  one  must  respect  the  weight  of  this  objec- 
tion to  the  theory  now  under  consideration.  (2)  If  we 
are  to  derive  the  quotation  from  the  Old  Testament, 
then  Isa.  52  :  15  affords  a  far  more  probable  source,  as 
it  is  identical  with  the  quotation  in  sense  and  similar 
to  it  in  language.  The  prophet  is  speaking  of  the 
servant  of  Jehovah,  the  Messiah,  and  says  that  "  kings 
shall  shut  their  mouths  at  him  :  for  that  which  had  not 
been  told  them  they  shall  see,  and  that  which  they  had 
not  heard  shall  they  understand."  Thus  both  the 
prophet  and  the  apostle  declare  that  the  riches  of  God's 
mercy  should  remain  a  mystery  until  Christ  came, 
when  it  should  he  revealed,  and  the  language  of  the 
prophet  is  not  very  distant  from  that  of  the  apostle; 
while  the  passage  previously  considered  is  dissimilar  m 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND  1 53 

both  thought  and  language,  "  hardly  presenting  even 
faint  resemblances,"  as  Meyer  says.  Moreover,  the 
reference  of  the  apostle  to  "rulers"  is  probably  de- 
rived from  the  "kings"  of  the  original  passage.  For 
these  reasons  I  hold  that  he  quotes  from  Isa.  52  :  15, 
with  perhaps  some  remembrance  of  Isa.  64  :  4.  (3)  In 
any  case,  the  apostle  does  not  quote  for  proof.  If  we 
even  grant  that  he  is  arguing,  he  does  not  "freely  alter 
the  original  to  suit  his  argument."  He  lays  the  chief 
stress  upon  a  fact  of  which  he  was  conscious  :  "  How- 
beit,  we  speak  wisdom  among  the  perfect :  yet  a  wis- 
dom not  of  this  world,  nor  of  the  rulers  of  this  world, 
which  are  coming  to  naught :  but  we  speak  God's  wis- 
dom in  a  mystery,  even  the  wisdom  that  hath  been 
hidden."  Let  those  who  wish  say  that  he  argues  from 
this  fact  as  a  basis.  Even  then  it  will  remain  true  that 
he  quotes,  as  Alford  says,  not  to  support  his  argument 
by  authority,  but  merely  to  illustrate  it. 

6.  We  have  another  instance  of  this  sort  at  1  Cor. 
15  :  55:  "O  death,  where  is  thy  victory?  O  death, 
where  is  thy  sting  ?  "  The  comment  of  Toy  is  worthy 
of  adoption  here  : 

The  prophetic  passage  is  a  declaration  that  Yahve  will  have 
no  mercy  on  Ephraim,  but  will  abandon  him  to  death.  "  Shall 
I  ransom  thee  from  the  hand  of  Sheol  ?  shall  I  redeem  thee  from 
death  ?  where  are  thy  plagues,  O  death  ?  where  thy  pestilence, 
O  Sheol?  repentance  shall  be  hid  from  my  eyes."  Death  and 
Sheol  are  summoned  to  seize  their  prey.  The  apostle  takes  the 
questions  in  the  inverse  sense,  using  the  words  to  express  the 
triumph  over  death  which  God  gives  through  Christ  :  rather  a 
free  adoption  of  the  language  than  a  quotation. 

7.  At  2  Cor.  4  :  13,  the  writer  says:    "Having  the 


154       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

same  spirit  of  faith,  according  to  that  which  is  written, 
I  believed,  and  therefore  did  I  speak  ;  we  also  believe, 
and  therefore  also  we  speak."  The  quotation  is  from 
Ps.  1 1 6  :  10,  and  follows  the  Septuagint,  though  it  is  a 
question  whether  it  also  follows  the  Hebrew.  Toy  de- 
cides with  certainty  that  it  does  not  represent  the 
Hebrew,  which  says,  according  to  him  :  "I  stand  firm 
now  in  trust,  though  once  I  said  in  my  haste,  All  men 
arc  liars."  Thus  the  belief  of  the  psalmist  was  not 
the  cause  of  his  speaking,  but  the  corrective  of  it. 
This  is  by  no  means  the  view  of  the  Hebrew  text  taken 
by  the  majority  of  the  great  Hebrew  scholars.  It  is 
rejected  by  the  Canterbury  Revisers,  by  Hupfeld,  by 
Hofmann,  by  Ewald,  by  Meyer,  by  Hengstenberg,  and 
by  many  others,  all  of  whom,  though  they  differ  among 
themselves  as  to  the  exact  construction  of  the  Hebrew, 
agree  in  the  view  that  it  gives  the  belief  a  harmonious 
and  essentially  causative,  instead  of  an  adversative  re- 
lation to  the  speaking.  Indeed,  I  have  found  no 
scholar,  unless  Luther  can  be  called  a  scholar,  who 
agrees  with  Toy  in  making  the  belief  a  corrective  of 
the  speaking. 

In  any  case,  however,  the  quotation  is  merely  illus- 
trative, and  we  have  seen  by  examples  from  all  litera- 
tures how  free  such  illustrative  quotations  are. 

II.  I  shall  now  bring  forward  instances  of  a  change 
of  reference  effected  by  an  intentional  change  of  the 
language  quoted. 

i.    In  his  "Letters,"  p.  296,  Cowper  writes:    "As  to 

elf,  I   have  always  the  same  song  to  sing;  well  in 

body,  but  sick  in  spirit  ;  sick  nigh  unto  death. 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  155 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
God,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  heavenly  day, 
Or  sight  of  cheering  truth,  or  pardon  sealed, 
Or  joy,  or  hope,  or  Jesus'  face  divine  : 
But  cloud,  etc. 
I  could  easily  set  my  complaint  to  Milton's  tune,  and  accom- 
pany him  through  the  whole  passage  on  the  subject  of  a  blind- 
ness more  deplorable  than  his." 

The  quotation  is  from  ''Paradise  Lost,"  III.,  41-45. 
Every  one  knows  that  Milton  wrote : 

Not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine, 
But  cloud. 

Thus  Cowper  alters  the  language  of  Milton,  and 
makes  it  express  a  thought  wholly  new.  I  call  special 
attention  to  the  fact  that  he  accompanies  the  altered 
quotation  with  a  commentary,  in  which  he  recognizes, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  explains  what  he  has  done. 

2.  Burke,  in  his  speech  on  conciliation  with  America, 
quotes  from  the  fourth  Eclogue  of  Virgil  : 

Facta  parentis 
Jam  legere,  et  quae  sit  poteris  cognoscere  virtus. 

This  is  the  original.  The  orator  found  it  necessary  to 
alter  the  lines  in  order  to  make  them  fit  a  new  connec- 
tion. In  doing  so,  says  Goodrich,  in  his  "  British 
Eloquence,"  p.  270,  note  7,  "  he  has  changed  some  of 
the  words  and  omitted  others,  so  as  to  render  the  con- 
struction obscure." 

3.  Pitt,  in  his  first  speech  in  reply  to  Fox,  quoted 
from  Horace,  Ode  XXIX.,  book  III,  lines  53-56  : 


156       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Laudo  manentem;  si  celeres  quat.it 
Pennas,  resigno  quae  dedit 

Here  he  paused,  and  seemed  to  reflect  that  the  next 
words  might  be  taken  as  a  boast.     They  are  : 

Et  mea 
Virtute  me  involve 
I  wrap  myself  in  my  virtue. 

His  silence  attracted  every  eye  to  him.  "  He  drew  his 
handkerchief  from  his  pocket,  passed  it  over  his  lips, 
and  then,  recovering  as  it  were  from  a  temporary  em- 
barrassment, he  struck  his  hand  with  great  force  upon 
the  table,  and  finished  the  sentence  in  the  most  em- 
phatic manner,  omitting  the  words  referred  to."  The 
omission  was  understood ;  the  effect  was  electrical  ;  and 
the  house  burst  forth  into  cheers. 

4.  There  is  a  somewhat  violent  instance  in  the  speech 
of  Lord  Chatham  in  favor  of  the  removal  of  the  British 
troops  from  Boston.  He  quotes  as  follows  from  Vir- 
gil, "  /Eneid,"  VI.,  566. 

Rhadamanthus  habet  durissima  regna, 
Castigatque  audit  que. 

But  Virgil  says  that  Rhadamanthus  holds  his  stern 
rule,  punishing  those  whose  crimes  he  hears.  By 
omitting  the  word  "  dolos  "  and  placing  in  italics  the 
"auditque,"  the  orator  causes  the  poet  to  say  that 
Rhadamanthus  punishes  and  afterward  hears.  He 
means  thus  to  charge  that  the  British  Government  had 
punished  the  American  colonies  first,  and  heard  them 
afterward.1 


1  Goodrich's  "  MriiiMi  U<"|«ence,     p.  I  -",  note  5. 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND  157 

5.  On  the  title-page  of  the  "  Letters  of  Junius"  are 
the  words  :  "Stat  nominis  umbra"  ;  "He  stands  the 
shadow  of  a  name."  They  are  from  Lucan's  "  Phar- 
salia,"  book  L,  line  135,  where  they  refer  to  Pompey. 
But  in  the  original  there  is  one  word  more  than  in  the 
quotation  :  "  Stat  magni  nominis  umbra  "  ;  "  He  stands 
the  shadow  of  a  mighty  name."  Junius  omits  the  word 
"mighty"  through  modesty,  as  he  applies  the  line  to 
himself. 

6.  In  Gladstone's  "  Gleanings  of  Past  Years,"  Vol. 
I.,  p.  206,  he  introduces  a  line  of  Horace,  from  Ode  I., 
book  XVI,  but  changes  it  to  suit  its  new  connection. 

There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt,  as  between  America  and  the 
England  of  the  future,  that  the  daughter,  at  some  no  very  dis- 
tant time,  will,  whether  fairer  or  less  fair,  be  unquestionably  yet 
stronger  than  the  mother. 

O  matre  forti  filia  fortior. 
Horace  wrote  : 

O  matre  pulchra  filia  pulchrior; 

but  this  would  be  inapplicable  to  the  purpose  of  Mr. 
Gladstone,  and  hence  he  substitutes  "strong"  and 
"stronger"  for  "fair"  and  "fairer." 

7.  Southey,  in  his  "  Doctor,"  p.  268,  has  the  follow- 
ing of  the  marriage  of  his  hero  :  "  What  Shakespeare 
says  of  the  Dauphin  and  the  Lady  Blanche  might  seem 
to  have  been  said  with  a  second  sight  of  this  union  : 

Such  as  she  is, 
Is  this  our  Doctor,  every  way  complete." 

The  quotation  is  from  "King  John,"  II.,  2.  But 
every  lover  of  Shakespeare  knows  that  his  words  are  : 


I58        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 

Such  as  she  is,  in  beauty,  virtue,  birth, 

Is  the  young  Dauphin,  every  way  complete. 

8.  In  Plato's  "  Theaetetus,"  section  154,  Socrates 
asks  his  hearer  if  a  thing  can  become  more  except  by- 
increasing.  The  answer  is,  No.  "Well  and  divinely 
said,  ray  friend,"  he  exclaims.  "  And  if  you  reply  '  Yes,' 
there  will  be  a  case  for  Euripides  ;  '  for  our  tongue  will 
be  unconvinced,  but  not  our  mind.'  "  The  quotation 
is  from  the  "  Hippolytus,"  line  612,  a  famous  and  im- 
pious saying  : 

My  tongue  hath  sworn  ;  my  mind  is  still  unsworn. 

Had  Socrates  quoted  the  words  of  Euripides  literally, 
they  would  have  been  inappropriate. 

9.  In  Plato's  "Republic,"  book  VIII.,  section  545, 
Socrates  speaks  of  the  possibility  of  discord  in  the 
kind  of  city  under  discussion  at  the  moment.  Here 
first  he  introduces  the  Muses,  and  lets  them  answer 
for  him  :  "  Shall  we,  after  the  manner  of  Homer,  pray 
the  Muses  to  tell  us  'how  strife  was  first  kindled?'" 
The  reference  is  to  the  opening  lines  of  the  "  Iliad," 
where  the  poet  asks  the  Muse  to  say,  "what  god  the  fatal 
strife  provoked,"  and  not  '•  how  strife  was  first  kindled." 
Since  Socrates  is  not  regarding  the  strife  of  the  city 
as  the  result  of  the  interference  of  a  god,  the  line,  in 
its  original  form,  would  not  be  suitable. 

10.  In  the  "<  Idyssey,"  book  XIX.,  line  163,  Penelope 
bids  the  disguised  I'lyssos  tell  her  where  he  was  born, 
and  of    what   race,  and  adds  : 

For  tlxni  art  not  from  the  ancient  oak,  nor  from  stone, 
implying  that  he  Is  therefore  human.     The  line  is  in 


QUOTATIONS    BY   SOUND  1 59 

the  second  person.  But  in  the  "  Apology,"  in  order  to 
adapt  it  to  his  meaning,  Plato  quotes  it  in  the  first  per- 
son, and  adds  a  few  words  to  bring  it  into  proper  rela- 
tion with  its  new  context  :  "  As  Homer  says  : 

Not  of  wood,  nor  of  stone  was  I  born,  but  of  man." 

11.  In  the  "Lesser  Hippias,"  section  365,  Plato 
produces  a  passage  from  the  "Iliad,"  IX.,  308.  He 
changes  it  to  suit  his  course  of  thought,  which  is  as 
follows  :  Hippias  is  maintaining  that  Achilles  is  repre- 
sented by  Homer  to  be  the  most  straightforward  of 
mankind.  To  prove  this,  he  quotes  a  speech  of 
Achilles,  who  says,  in  reality  : 

I  must  frankly  speak  my  fixed  resolve. 

I  will  speak  what  seems  to  me  the  wisest  course. 

But  Hippias  represents  Achilles  as  saying  : 

I  will  speak  the  word  I  intend  to  act. 
I  will  speak  that  which  shall  be  done. 

It  is  evident  at  a  glance  that  these  changes,  though 
doing  no  special  violence  to  the  thought,  are  in  the 
interest  of  the  argument  that  he  was  a  most  sincere 
man,  and  always  did  the  thing  he  said. 

12.  In  Plato's  "Republic,"  book  II.,  section  363, 
Glaucon  represents  Homer  as  advocating  justice  on  the 
ground  that  he  who  practises  it  becomes  rich  : 

Homer  has  a  very  similar  strain,  for  he  speaks  of  one  whose 
fame  is 

As  the  fame  of  some  blameless  king  who,  like  a  god, 
Maintains  justice;  to  whom  the  black  earth  brings  forth 
Wheat  and  barley,  whose  trees  are  bowed  with  fruit, 
And  his  sheep  never  fail  to  bear,  and  the  sea  gives  him  fish. 


l6o       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  next  line  is  discreetly  omitted,  for  had  it  been 
quoted  it  would  have  shown  that  these  blessings  are 
considered  as  coming,  not  to  the  wise  king,  but  to  the 
people  under  him,  while  to  him  comes  the  renown  of 
such  prosperous  governing. 

13.  In  his  "Rhetoric,"  book  II.,  chapter  2,  section 
7,  Aristotle  speaks  of  anger  produced  by  disrespect 
from  an  inferior,  and  quotes  from  the  "  Iliad,"  II.,  196  : 

Great  is  the  wrath  of  divine-bred  kings. 

The  line  in  the  original  speaks  of  Agamemnon  alone  ; 
and  Aristotle  changes  it  to  the  plural,  because  he 
wishes  to  illustrate  a  universal  rule. 

THE    ORIGINAL.  THE    QUOTATION. 

6u/wz  ok  /iiyaz  io-r'c  deorpe- 1  dupbz  ok  fiiya:  iari  ocozot- 
<f£oz  ftaodrjos.  yscov  fiaodyov. 

14.  In  Aristotle's  "Politics,"  1253,9,  he  cites  tne 
"Iliad,"  IX.,  63,  where  Homer  says  that  the  lover  of 
civil  war  is  "  clanless,  lawless,  heartless."  But  Aristotle 
reverses  the  statement,  and  "  seems  to  conceive  Homer," 
writes  Newman,1  "to  say  that  the  ' clanless,  lawless, 
heartless'  man  is  a  lover  of  civil  war." 

1  5.  In  the  "Odyssey,"  VIII.,  487,  are  these  lines,  as 
Bryant  translates  them  : 

Demodochus,  above  all  other  men 

I  give  thee  praise,  for  either  has  the  Muse, 

Jove's  daughter,  or  Apollo,  visited 

And  taught  thee. 

1  "Politics  "i   Aristotle."     W.  L,  Newman,  Vol.  II.,  p.  121,  note  4. 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  l6l  . 

Maximus  Tyrius,  in  his  dissertation  entitled  "  Is  there 
a  Sect  in  Philosophy  according  to  Homer,"  quotes  the 
lines  in  praise  of  Homer,  putting  the  word  Homer  in 
the  place  of  Demodochus. 


THE   ORIGINAL. 

dyfj.6oux\  igo%a  orj  ae  ftpozcov 

acvc^oju'  cLTiduzcov 
Yj    asye   Moba    idcoaze,   Acoq 

7ia7Z)  7]  oef  ' AjtoXhov. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

* '  Eqoyjj.    oq    as    ftpozaiv,    w 
aOfjL/]p\  aivi^ofx  x.  r.  L 


1 6.  Maximus  Tyrius,  Dissertation  XIX.,  at  the  end 
of  the  sixth  paragraph,  represents  Homer  as  saying  : 

By  mortals  ;  but  the  immortals  all  things  know. 

This  quotation  is  from  the  "  Odyssey,"  X.,  304. l 
"  Maximus,"  says  Taylor  "  in  order  to  adapt  this  line 
to  his  purpose,  for  the  last  word  d'jvavzat  has  substi- 
tuted taaac."  Instead  of  "all  things  can,"  he  has 
"all  things  know."  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no 
violence  done  to  Homer,  since  omnipotence  implies 
omniscience. 

17.  Maximus  Tyrius,  in  his  dissertation  on  "The 
Pleasure  of  Philosophical  Discourse,"  quotes  a  line 
from  Homer,  which  Taylor  translates  freely  thus  : 

But  virtue  lost  can  never  be  regained. 

It  is  from  the  indignant  remonstrance  of  Achilles  in 
the  "  Iliad,"  IX.,  408.  The  warrior  speaks  of  human 
life: 

But  life,  once  lost,  can  never  be  regained. 

1  See  Taylor's  translation,  Vol.  II.,  p.  193. 


l62        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Thus  Maximus  Tyrius,  who  is  writing  of  virtue,  adapts 
the  line  to  his  purpose  by  substituting  the  word  virtue 
for  the  word  life. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

'Audpbz  ok  dpeTTj  x.  r.  I. 


THE   ORIGINAL. 

\ludpoz  os  (/'o%rj  nd.hu  iXdecv 

OUTS  LZlOT'-q  OU(f   k/^TYJ. 

1 8.  In  the  letter  of  Julian  to  Themistius,  the  phi- 
losopher, he  quotes  from  the  "Politics"  of  Aristotle, 
book  III.,  section  15.     Aristotle  says  : 

If  any  one  should  think  it  best  for  a  nation  to  be  governed  by 
a  king,  what  shall  be  determined  with  regard  to  his  children  ? 
Must  his  descendants  also  reign  ?  If  they  must,  however  inca- 
pable, much  inconvenience  may  ensue.  But  will  not  the  king 
leave  bis  sons  his  successors,  if  he  has  it  in  his  power  ? 

In  the  time  of  Aristotle  it  was  a  question  with  many 
kings  whether  or  not  they  had  the  power  to  transmit 
the  sceptre  to  their  sons,  and  hence  the  doubt  expressed 
in  the  last  sentence  of  the  passage.  It  was  a  question 
which  Aristotle,  who  was  not  a  king,  could  lightly  ask. 
In  the  age  of  Julian,  it  was  also  a  serious  question  with 
the  Roman  emperors.  But  Julian,  now  associated  with 
Constantius  on  the  throne,  would  not  care  to  contem- 
plate the  difficulty,  or  to  suggest  it  to  another.  Hence 
he  changes  the  form  of  the  sentence,  and  makes  Aris- 
totle say,  without  any  doubt : 

Will  not  the  sovereign  in  possession  leave  the  government  to 

his  sons  ? 

[9.  At  the  close  of  his  "Oration  on  the  Departure 
of  Sallust,"  Julian  quotes  two  lines  from  Homer;  but 
they  are  a  mosaic   from   various   places;  "Odyssey," 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND 


163 


XXIV.,  401,  405,  and  X.,  562  ;  the  words  being  so 
altered  in  grammatical  form  and  so  intermingled  with 
new  words  as  to  adapt  them  to  the  use  to  which  he 
applies  them. 


THE    QUOTATION. 

OuXe  re  xal  fxiya  %a7pe,  dsoi 

o£  to:  oXfita  outsv, 
uoarqcra:    olxovde    <pcXqu    ec 

Ttaxpida  yalav. 


THE   ORIGINAL. 

XXIV.,  401. 

Oboi  x  oco/xiuouTi,  Oeoi  oi  a 

dvrjyayov  auzoe. 

XXIV.,  405. 

NoorqaavTa.  as  dz~j[j\  -q  dyys- 

Xou  OTpUVCOfXEV. 

X.,  562. 
(PdaOe  v'j  Tioo  olxovde  <pcXrju 
ec  Ttazpida  ydZav. 

Which  Duncombe  translates  thus  : 

With  health,  with  joy  to  his  loved  native  shore, 
May  the  kind  gods  my  honored  friend  restore. 

20.  In    his    letter    to    the    philosopher   Jamblichus, 
Julian  says  : 

So  that  Homer,    I   think,  if  he  were  to  return  to  life,   might 
with  much  more  reason  apply  that  line  to  you  : 

'El~  8"  ere  7tou  £wu?  zarepuxerat  eopit  •/.6(t/j.uj. 

One  still  somewhere  living  the  wide  world  keeps  back. 

But  Homer  wrote  " supco  -ovtec":  "the  wide  ocean." 
This,  however,  was  inapplicable  to  the  philosopher, 
whom  Julian  would  say,  the  fortunate  world  still  re- 
tains ;  and  hence  the  wording  is  slightly  changed. 

21.  I  mention  again  the  lines  from  Ennius1  in  the 


Long's  "  Orations  of  Cicero,"  IV.,  p.  1S1,  note. 


164        QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

"Oration  of  Cicero  against  Piso,"  section  19,  of  which 
Long  says  :  "  Cicero  has  slightly  altered  the  verse  to 
suit  his  sentence." 

22.  I  cite  again  the  "  Tusculan  Disputations,"  XX., 
45.  The  first  of  the  two  quotations  here  is  "from  the 
'  Medea '  of  Ennius,  but  altered  by  Cicero.  ' 

23.  In  his  eighty-eighth  letter  Seneca  upbraids  the 
vanity  of  astronomers  who  observe  the  stars.  He 
quotes  from  the  "  Georgics,"  I.,  424.     Virgil  wrote  : 

If  thou  give  attention  to  the  rapid  sun,  and  the  moons 
In  order  following. 

Virgil  refers  to  farmers  ;  but  Seneca  is  speaking  of  a 
class  of  men  whose  special  study  is  the  stars,  and  hence 
he  changes  "  moons  "  to  "  stars." 

I  shall  now  present  those  quotations  of  the  New 
Testament  which  are  often  said  to  belong  to  this  class. 
The  reader  will  observe  that  they  are  few  in  number, 
that  not  all  of  them  are  certainly  of  the  kind  now  under 
consideration,  and  that  none  of  them  is  extreme  in  its 
use  of  the  freedom  which  the  foregoing  examples  illus- 
trate. 

1.    In  Rom.  10  :  iS   there    is   a   quotation   from    Ps. 

19  14: 

Their  sound  went  out  into  all  the  earth, 
And  their  words  unto  the  ends  of  the  world. 

The  Hebrew  reads  : 

Their  line  went  forth. 

The  Septuagint  translated  the  Hebrew  word  for  "line" 

by  the  Greek  word  for  "sound."  and  the  Apostle  Paul 

1  Cicero's  "  1  n-«-ul. m  Disputations."    Thos  I  base      P.  145,  note. 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND  165 

adopted  the  Septuagint  form  of  the  verse  possibly 
because  the  word  "  sound  "  was  better  adapted  to  his 
purpose  than  the  word  "line."  Or,  he  may  have 
adopted  it  merely  because  he  found  it  in  the  only  Bible 
which  his  readers  knew,  and  did  not  deem  a  resort  to 
the  Hebrew  necessary,  a  use  of  the  Septuagint  amply 
illustrated  in  our  first  chapter.  The  psalmist  refers  to 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  Paul  adopts  the  lines  as  elo- 
quently expressive  of  the  course  of  the  gospel.  "  It, 
like  the  sun  and  moon  and  stars,"  Toy  writes,  "had 
traversed  the  whole  earth  ;  a  natural  hyperbole.  There 
is  here,"  he  continues,  "no  allegorizing  of  the  psalm." 
It  should  be  added,  however,  as  Bengel  and  Alford 
have  observed,  that  the  psalm  itself  is  "  a  comparison 
of  the  sun,  and  the  glory  of  the  heavens,  with  the  word 
of  God  "  ;  so  that  the  apostle  is  merely  carrying  out 
the  illustration  which  he  found  in  the  context  from 
which  he  quotes. 

2.  There  is  an  undoubted  instance  in  which  a  change 
of  language  made  by  the  Septuagint  is  adopted  by  the 
New  Testament  writer  because  it  fits  the  passage  for 
its  new  connection.  But  in  this  case  again  the  phrase- 
ology is  employed  for  decoration  or  illustration,  and  not 
for  proof.  The  instance  is  at  Hcb.  10  :  37,  38,  where 
Hab.  2  :  3,  4  is  quoted.  Habakkuk  looks  forward  to 
the  invasion  of  Palestine  by  the  Chaldaeans,  which  took 
place  about  b.  c.  606.  He  predicts  that  the  just  and 
faithful  shall  be  delivered,  and  exhorts  his  readers  to 
patience  by  the  assurance  that  deliverance  will  come, 
though  it  may  tarry.  "The  vision"  of  deliverance,  he 
says,  "  is  yet  for  the  appointed  time,  and  it  hasteth 
toward  the  end,  and  shall  not  lie  ;  though  it  tarry,  wait 


l66        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

for  it ;  because  it  will  surely  come,  it  will  not  delay." 
The  enemy  is  proud  :  "  his  soul  is  puffed  up,  it  is  not 
upright  in  him  ;  but  the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith,"  or 
"  in  his  faithfulness." 

In  the  Septuagint  are  two  marked  changes.  First, 
instead  of  saying  that  the  vision  of  deliverance  will 
surely  come,  this  version  says  that  "he,"  God,  will 
surely  come  to  deliver,  and  shall  not  delay.  This 
change  is  accepted  by  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  as  the  quotation  is  not  for  proof;  as  it  makes 
no  difference  in  the  essential  meaning  of  the  passage 
whether  deliverance  is  surely  coming  for  God,  or  God 
is  surely  coming  in  his  providence  to  deliver ;  and  as 
the  form  of  the  sentence  in  the  Septuagint  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  connection  in  which  the  writer  places  it. 

The  case  is  different,  however,  with  the  second 
change.  The  writer  of  the  epistle  alters  the  order  of 
the  phrases.  He  finds  in  the  Septuagint  the  declara- 
tion :  "  If  he  shrink  back,  my  soul  hath  no  pleasure  in 
him  ;  but  my  just  one  shall  live  by  faith."  He  exactly 
reverses  this,  and  quotes  as  follows  : 

My  righteous  one  shall  live  by  faith  : 

And  if  he  shrink  back,  my  soul  hath  no  pleasure  in  him. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  Toy  that  he  transposes  the  clauses 
of  the  verse  thus  in  order  that  he  may  add  the  sentence 
immediately  following  :  "  Hut  we  are  not  of  them  that 
shrink  back  unto  perdition,  but  of  them  that  have  faith 
unto  the  savin-"  of  the  soul."  But  it'  any  one  will  take 
the  trouble  to  read  the  lines  in  the  Septuagint  form,  and 
then  in  the  New  Testament  form,  adding  the  next  verse 
in  eai  h  instance,  he  will   see  that  Toy  is  mistaken,  and 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 67 

that  no  rhetorical  advantage  whatever  is  gained  by  the 
inversion.  It  must  be  the  result  therefore  of  memory- 
quoting,  which  I  have  considered  elsewhere. 

The  quotation  as  a  whole  is  apposite  in  the  extreme. 
Those  to  whom  the  original  passage  was  addressed  were 
plunged  into  terrible  trials,  as  were  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians of  the  apostolic  age.  The  prophet  would  console 
them  and  nerve  them  to  patient  endurance,  which  was 
also  the  object  of  the  Christian  writer.  The  truth 
which  the  prophet  uttered  for  this  purpose  was  one  that 
can  never  lose  its  power  to  stimulate  and  comfort  the 
good  who  suffer  under  the  oppression  of  the  evil  ;  it  is 
the  certainty  that  God  will  protect  his  people,  and  that 
those  shall  live  who  trust  in  his  grace. 

III.  I  now  adduce  instances  of  a  change  of  refer- 
ence produced  by  using  language  in  a  new  sense. 

I  begin  with  a  quotation  from  Jowett,  "  Epistles  of 
St.  Paul,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  356.      He  says  : 

The  "point  of  force"  of  a  quotation  in  our  own  literature 
frequently  consists  in  a  slight,  or  even  a  great,  deviation  from 
the  sense  in  which  it  was  uttered  by  its  author.  Its  aptness 
lies  in  its  being  at  once  old  and  new  ;  often  in  bringing  into 
juxtaposition  things  so  remote  that  we  should  not  have  imagined 
that  they  were  connected  ;  sometimes  in  a  word  rather  than  in  a 
sentence,  even  in  the  substitution  of  a  word,  or  in  a  logical  in- 
ference not  wholly  warranted. ' ' 

This  is  true,  except  that  we  do  not  honestly  make 
such  quotations  for  proof,  but  rather  to  illustrate,  to 
decorate,  to  commend  our  theme  by  an  evident  play  of 
wit,  to  give  our  thought  a  graceful  dress  of  language 
and  the  light  of  some  subtle  analogy. 


l68       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

I  shall  now  illustrate  these  statements  of  Jovvett  by 
numerous  examples. 

i.  The  one  hundred  and  thirty-first  number  of  the 
"Tattler"  is  devoted  to  an  essay  by  Addison  on  the 
danger  of  using  wine  manufactured  chemically  : 

These  subterranean  philosophers  are  daily  employed  in  the 
transmutation  of  liquors,  and,  by  the  power  of  magical  drugs 
and  incantations,  raising  under  the  streets  of  London  the  choicest 
products  of  the  hills  and  valleys  of  France.  They  can  squeeze 
Bourdeaux  out  of  the  sloe,  and  draw  Champagne  from  an 
apple.      Virgil,  in  that  remarkable  prophecy  (Eel.  IV.,  29), 

Incultisque  rubens  pendebit  sentibus  uva, 
The  ripening  grape  shall  hang  on  every  thorn, 

seems  to  have  hinted  at  this  art,  which  can  turn  a  plantation  of 
northern  hedges  into  a  vineyard. 

Here  the  word  "thorn"  is  made  to  mean  a  "northern 
hedge,"  and  the  essayist  seems  seriously  to  assert  that 
the  line  quoted  from  Virgil  was  designed  by  its  author 
to  foretell  the  modern  chemical  manufacture  of  wine. 
Of  course  the  essayist  knows  that  this  is  not  its  mean- 
ing, and  that  he  is  employing  it  quite  aside  from  its 
real  significance.  Of  course,  also,  he  is  aware  that  his 
readers  know  the  same.  He  does  not  really  intend  to 
give  it  such  explanation  ;  but  under  the  guise  of  a  com- 
mentary he  finds  an  illustration  of  his  theme  at  once 
ingenious,  startling,  and  pleasing, 

2.  We  have  an  instance  of  altered  meaning  almost 
exactly  like  this  in  number  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  of   the  "Spectator,"  where  Addison  writes: 

When  I  reflect  upon  the  various  fate  of  those  multitudes  of 
ancient  writers  who  flourished  in  drccce  and  Italy,  I  consider 
time  as  .in  immense  ocean,  in  which  many  noble  authors  are 


QUOTATIONS   BY   SOUND  1 69 

entirely  swallowed  up,  many  very  much  shattered  and  damaged, 
some  quite  disjointed  and  broken  into  pieces,  while  some  have 
wholly  escaped  the  common  wreck  ;  but  the  number  of  the  last 
is  very  small  (Virg.  JEn.  I.,  122), 

Apparent  rari  nantes  in  gurgite  vasto, 

One  here  and  there  floats  on  the  vast  abyss. 

Virgil  uses  the  word  "  abyss  "  in  its  natural  sense,  of  the  ocean, 
and  Addison  bends  it  to  mean  the  ocean  of  time. 

3.  The  following  is  from  essay  fifty-seven  of  "The 
World  "  : 

While  the  sons  of  great  persons  are  indulged  by  tutors  and 
their  mother's  maids  at  home,  the  intended  parson  is  confined 
closely  to  school,  from  whence  he  has  the  misfortune  to  be  sent 
directly  to  college,  where  he  continues,  perhaps,  half  a  score  of 
years,  drudging  at  his  courses,  and  where  for  want  of  money  he 
may  exclaim  with  Milton  that 

Ever-during  dark 
Surrounds  me  :  from  the  cheerful  ways  of  men 
Cut  off;  and,  for  the  book  of  knowledge  fair, 
Presented  with  a  universal  blank. 

Which  is  as  much  as  to  say  that  he  is  totally  in  the  dark  as  to 
what  is  doing  abroad,  and  that  while  other  men  are  going  on  in 
the  cheerful  ways  of  drinking  and  gaming,  and  improving  their 
minds  by  Mr.  Hoyle's  book  of  knowledge,  the  whole  world  is  a 
blank  to  the  poor  parson  who,  in  all  probability,  grows  old  in  a 
country  cure,  and  owes  to  the  squire  of  the  parish  all  his  knowl- 
edge of  mankind. 

Let  the  reader  observe  that  entirely  new  senses  are 
given  here  to  the  expressions  "dark,"  "cheerful  ways 
of  men,"  and  "book  of  knowledge,"  and  also  that  the 
writer,  in  his  commentary,  seems  to  claim  that  Milton 
meant  ignorance  by  the  first,  a  vicious  life  by  the 
second,  and  "Hoyle's  Games"  by  the  third.  A 
Japanese,  unacquainted  with  our  literature,  and  reading 
r 


170       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

the  passage  without  a  guide,  would  probably  interpret 
it  in  this  manner.  So  would  a  critic  who  wished  to 
accuse  the  essayist.  The  ordinary  unprejudiced  English 
reader,  however,  finds  no  difficulty. 

4.  Sometimes  the  writer  notifies  us  that  his  quotation 
is  nut  used  in  the  original  signification.  The  twenty- 
second  essay  of  "The  Observer"  is  devoted  to  the 
condemnation  of  gambling.  The  writer  personifies  this 
vice,  and  addresses  it  thus  : 

I  may  say  to  my  antagonist  in  the  words,  though  not  altogether 
in  the  sense,  that  the  angel  Gabriel  does  to  his, 

Satan,  I  know  thy  strength,  and  thou  know'st  mine. 

But  far  oftener  we  have  no  such  warning,  since  we  are 
supposed  to  be  acquainted  with  the  passage  and  able  to 
appreciate  for  ourselves  the  ingenuity  of  its  new  appli- 
cation without  the  aid  of  a  commentary. 

5.  Bunyan,  in  the  "Pilgrim's  Progress,"  leads  us  to 
the  "House  Beautiful."  The  porter  asks:  "What  is 
your  name?"     The  pilgrim  answers: 

My  name  is  now  Christian  ;  but  my  name  at  first  was  Grace- 
less :  I  came  of  the  race  of  Japheth,  whom  God  will  persuade  to 
dwell  in  the  tents  of  Shem. 

The  reference  is  to  Gen.  9  :  27.  But  the  word  "Japh- 
eth" is  used  to  signify  those  who  are  aliens  from  the 
true  religion,  and  the  word  "Shem"  those  who  possess 
it.  In  Genesis  the  prediction  is  ethnographical  ami 
political. 

6.  In  the  fifty-eighth  essay  of  "The  Looker  On" 
the  writer  describes  the  effect  of  a  good  dinner: 

Mr.  Blunt,  whose  quarrels  with  his  neighbors  I  have  remarked 
upon   in   my   third   number,  tried  the   potency  of  a  good  dinner 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  171 

with  wonderful  success  in  rubbing  off  old  scores,  and  effacing 
all  impressions  to  his  disadvantage  ;  and  those  who  have  taken 
opinions  respecting  him  on  the  Monday,  and  again  on  the 
Wednesday,  have  been  astonished  at  the  change  in  the  public 
sentiments  wrought  by  the  intervention  of  a  single  day,  during 
which  the  whole  neighborhood  was  treated  in  a  sumptuous 
manner. 

And  fools,  that  went  to  scoff,  returned  to  pray. 

The  line  refers,  in  its  original  position,  to  fools  who  go 
to  church  to  scoff  and  return  transformed  and  praying 
to  God,  whom  they  before  mocked.  The  words  "  to 
pray  "  have  the  meaning  of  to  worship,  to  adore,  in  a 
religious  sense,  and  then  of  "to  ask,"  in  an  ordinary 
worldly  sense.  The  poet  uses  them  with  the  former 
signification  ;  the  essayist  with  the  latter. 

7.  In  Gladstone's  "Gleanings  of  Past  Years,"  Vol. 
I.,  p.  206,  he  introduces  a  line  of  Horace,  but  in  a  sense 
never  thought  of  by  its  author  : 

There  can  be  hardly  a  doubt,  as  between  America  and  the 
England  of  the  future,  that  the  daughter,  at  some  no  very  distant 
time  will,  whether  fairer  or  less  fair,  be  unquestionably  yet 
stronger  than  the  mother. 

O  matre  forti  filia  fortior. 

A  critic  like  Kuenen  would  object  to  this  quotation  on 
the  ground  that  the  words  "mother"  and  "daughter" 
are  made  to  have  a  meaning  utterly  different  from  that 
which  the  Latin  poet  found  in  them,  since  he  had  in 
mind  persons  and  not  countries.1 

8.  Another  instance  is  the  following  from  Robert 
Hall's  sermon  on  "  The  Discouragements  and  Supports 
of  the  Christian  Minister,"  near  the  close  : 

1  See  pp.  44,  45. 


172       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

However  inattentive  others  may  be  to  the  approach  of  our 
Lord,  can  it  ever  vanish  from  our  minds,  who  are  detained  by 
him  in  his  sanctuary  on  purpose  to  preserve  it  pure,  to  trim  the 
golden  lamps,  and  maintain  the  hallowed  fire,  that  he  may  find 
nothing  neglected  or  in  disorder  when  "  he  shall  suddenly  come 
to  his  temple,  even  the  messenger  of  the  covenant,  whom  we 
delight  in." 

This  quotation  forms  a  magnificent  decoration  of  the 
discourse,  although  its  original  use  was  quite  different. 
In  the  Bible  it  is  a  prediction  of  the  coming  of  God  to 
the  second  temple  in  Jerusalem.  Here  the  church  is 
the  temple,  and  the  coming  of  God  is  either  at  death 
or  at  the  last  day. 

9.  Webster  presents  us  another  example  in  his  first 
oration  at  Bunker  Hill  : 

Knowledge,  in  truth,  is  the  great  sun  in  the  firmament.  Life 
and  power  are  scattered  with  all  its  beams.  The  prayer  of  the 
Grecian  champion,  when  enveloped  in  unnatural  clouds  and 
darkness,  is  the  appropriate  political  supplication  for  the  people 
of  every  country  not  yet  blessed  with  free  institutions  : 

Dispel  this  cloud,  the  light  <>f  heaven  restore, 
(Jive  me  to  see  ;  and  Ajax  asks  no  more. 

Here  the  orator  quotes  words  originally  spoken  with 
reference  to  physical  darkness  and  natural  vision,  and 
applies  them  to  mental  ignorance  and  mental  education. 
There  are  three  words  in  particular  in  the  quotation 
which  he  bends  to  senses  entirely  different  from  those 
in  which  they  are  employed  in  the  poem ;  they  are 
"  cloud,"  "  light,"  and  "  see." 

10.  The  quotation  in  such  cases  is  often  made  on  ac- 
count of  the  sound  of  the  words,  and  not  on  account 
of  the  meaning  they  convey  in  their  original   position  ; 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 73 

and  the  skillful  bending  of  the  old  familiar  sounds  to 
unexpected  meanings  is  a  part  of  the  charm  of  this 
method  of  quoting.  Thus  Edward  Everett  says,  in  his 
"  Questions  of  the  Day  "  : 

That  was  the  State  mystery  into  which  men  and  angels  de- 
sired to  look;  hidden  from  ages,  but  revealed  to  us: 

Which  kings  and  prophets  waited  for, 
And  sought,  but  never  found  : 

a  family  of  States  independent  of  each  other  for  local  concerns, 
united  under  one  government  for  the  management  of  common 
interests  and  the  prevention  of  internal  feuds. 

Here  we  find  a  fragment  from  1  Peter  1  :  12  ;  a  frag- 
ment from  Col.  1:26;  and  a  fragment  of  a  versifica- 
tion of  Luke  10  :  24,  all  apparently  declared  in  so 
many  words  to  refer  to  the  constitution  of  the  United 
States.  The  agreement  of  these  extracts  with  the 
orator's  thought  is  only  in  sound,  for  a  new  sense  is 
given  to  the  words  "mystery,"  "ages,"  and  "revealed." 

11.  Ruskin,  in  his  "Sesame  and  Lilies,"  p.  117, 
urges  women  to  help  their  degraded  sisters  to  a  pure 
and  beautiful  life,  and  directs  them  to  go  forth  calling  : 

Come  into  the  garden,  Maud, 

For  the  black  bat,  night,  has  flown, 
And  the  woodbine  spices  are  wafted  abroad, 

And  the  musk  of  the  roses  blown. 

Here  again  no  explanation  is  offered,  though  a  new 
meaning  is  given  to  the  word  "night,"  and  thus  a  new 
reference  to  the  whole  passage. 

12.  Plato,  in  the  "  Protagoras,"  represents  Socrates 
as  calling  on  the  celebrated  Sophist  of  this  name,  and 
as  afterward  relating  the  story  of  his  visit.      He  speaks 


174       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

first  of  the  persons  whom  he  found  with  Protagoras. 
After  mentioning  several,  he  adds,  quoting  from  the 
"  Odyssey,"  book  XI.,  line  582  : 

My  eyes  beheld  Tantalus  ; 

for  Prodicus,  the  Cean,  was  at  Athens,  and  lay  in  bed,  wrapped 
in  sheepskins  and  bedclothes. 

Here  no  one  needs  to  be  told  that  Prodicus  was  not 
Tantalus,  though  the  word  Tantalus  is  used  in  such  a 
way  as  to  identify  it  with  Prodicus  in  meaning. 

13.  In  Plato's  "Republic,"  book  II.,  section  379, 
Socrates  maintains  that  God  is  good,  and  hence  the 
author  only  of  good  to  men.  He  therefore  condemns 
the  passage  in  the  "  Iliad,"  XXIV.,  527,  where  Achilles 
says  that  : 

At  the  threshold  of  Zeus  lie  two  casks  full  of  lots,  one  of  good, 
the  other  of  evil, 

and  he  to  whom  Zeus  gives  a  mixture  of  the  two 
Sometimes  meets  with  good,  at  other  times  with  evil  fortune. 

He  especially  condemns  the  line  : 

Zeus,  who  is  the  dispenser  of  good  and  evil  to  us. 

His  whole  argument  here  turns  upon  the  supposition 
that  the  word  "  e\il  "  in  these  lines  means  either  moral 

evil,  wrong,  or  at  least  permanent  and  irretrievable 
injur)'.  The  Greek  word,  like  our  word  evil,  may  be 
in  tin-  ordinary  sense  of  misfortune,  and  is  so  used 
by  Achilles;  or  it  may  be  used  of  injustice,  sin,  crime, 
or  of  some  injury  proceeding  from  wicked  malevolence; 
and   Socrates  seems  to  quote   it   in  one  of  these  latter 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 75 

senses.  To  quote  it  in  its  Homeric  sense  would  have 
done  violence  to  his  own  line  of  thought. 

14.  In  Plato's  "Lysis,"  section  212,  Socrates  quotes 
from  Solon  to  prove  that  an  object  may  be  dear,  even 
if  it  give  no  returning  love.  If  we  supposed  the  con- 
trary, then  we  should  be  obliged  to  suppose  that 

They  are  not  lovers  of  horses  whom  the  horses  do  not  love  in 
return,  nor  lovers  of  quails,  nor  of  dogs,  nor  of  wine,  nor  of  gym- 
nastic exercises,  who  have  no  return  of  love;  no,  nor  of  wisdom, 
unless  wisdom  loves  them  in  return.  Or  perhaps  they  do  love 
them;  but  they  are  not  beloved  by  them;  and  the  poet  was  wrong 
who  sings: 

Happy  the  man  to  whom  his  children  are  dear,  and  steeds  having  single 
hoofs,  and  dogs  of  chase,  and  the  stranger  of  another  land. 

Every  reader  of  the  Greek  perceives  that  the  word 
rendered  "are  dear"  can  refer  only  to  the  "children," 
and  not  to  the  horses  and  other  objects  mentioned. 
That  Socrates  quotes  the  passage  as  if  it  proved  the 
other  objects  to  be  "dear"  has  caused  infinite  wonder 
and  debate  to  scholars.  Probably  he  does  it  only  to 
teach  his  young  hearers  to  listen  critically.  It  is  suffi- 
cient for  us  to  observe  that  he  does  it,  whatever  his  rea- 
son, and  thus  diverts  the  words  widely  from  their 
original  meaning. 

1  5.  Homer  uses  the  word  air,  drjtn,  sometimes  in  the 
sense  of  atmosphere,  and  sometimes  in  the  sense  of 
mist  and  cloud.  Bearing  this  fact  thus  indicated  in 
mind,  let  us  turn  to  Plutarch's  treatise  on  "  The  Prin- 
ciple of  Cold,"  section  9,  where  he  maintains  that  the 
atmosphere  was  at  first  dark.  The  poets,  he  says, 
"  call  the  air  darkness"  : 


176        QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Thick  was  the  air  around  our  barks ;  the  moon 
Shone  not  in  heaven. 

Here  Homer  means  mist  and  cloud,  and  certainly 
not  darkness.  The  quotation,  however,  is  apposite  as 
an  ornament,  lighting  up  the  argument  and  contribu- 
ting interest  to  an  abstruse  and  difficult  theme,  though 
every  Greek  reader  would  know  that  it  is  used  quite 
out  of  its  original  sense,  and  though  the  quotation  is 
in  the  form  of  a  proof. 

16.  In  Plato's  "Laches,"  section  201,  Socrates  urges 
his  hearers  to  place  themselves  under  teachers,  that 
they  may  learn.      He  continues  : 

If  any  one  laughs  at  us  for  going  to  school  at  our  age,  I  would 
quote  to  them  the  authority  of  Homer,  who  says  that 

Modesty  is  not  good  for  a  needy  man. 

The  Greek  word  which  Homer  employs  for  "needy" 
has  a  form  which  refers  to  physical  destitution  only,1 
and  never  to  mental.  Plato  employs  it  as  if  it  referred 
to  intellectual  destitution.  Having  quoted  it  in  this 
new  sense,  he  proceeds  to  draw  an  inference  of  duty 
from  the  quotation  : 

Let  us  then,  regardless  of  the  remarks  which  are  made  upon 
us,  make  the  education  of  the  youths  our  own  education. 

17.  In  Lucian's  "Parasite,"  Simo  defends  the  life 
of  the  parasite  by  various  arguments.  Among  other 
authorities  he  quotes  Homer,  who,  he  says 

celebrates,  full  of  admiration,  the  life  of  the  parasite  as  the 
only  one  truly  happy  and  enviable. 

•  It  is  the  perfect  participle  of  gprfojMu,  used  as  an  adjective.  For  the 
limitation  ol  the  meaning  of  this  form,  see  any  lexicon. 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 77 

The  citation  follows  from  the  "  Odyssey,"  IX.,  5.  This 
note  from  Tooke,  Vol.  I.,  p.  149,  will  exhibit  his  method 
of  proof : 

Homer  employs  the  word  TeAOS,  and  seems,  by  connecting  it 
with  the  adjective  x<*p«:'<"-epoe,  to  mean  nothing  more  than  the  most 
agreeable  that  can  be  conceived  ;  but  because  t«a.os  also  signi- 
fies ultimate  end,  and  in  the  language  of  the  Stoics  and  other 
philosophers  sometimes  implies  the  supreme  good,  the  parasite 
avails  himself  of  that  ambiguity. 

The  parasite  transfers  the  word  from  one  sense  to  an- 
other, half  in  humor,  knowing  that  the  hearer  will  not 
be  misled,  and  wishing,  perhaps,  to  satirize  the  philoso- 
phers for  the  manner  in  which  they  appealed  to  Homer 
to  prove  their  doctrines. 

18.  In  his  treatise  on  "  Isis  and  Osiris,"  Plutarch 
writes  as  follows.    I  quote  from  Goodwin's  translation  : 

Cleanthes  somewhere  saith  that  Proserpine,  or  Persephone,  is 
the  breath  of  air  which  is  carried  through  corn  and  then  dies; 
and  again  a  certain  poet  saith  of  reapers, 

Then  when  the  youth  the  legs  of  Ceres  cut. 

For  these  men  seem  to  me  to  be  nothing  wiser  than  such  as 
would  take  the  sails,  the  cables,  and  the  anchor  of  a  ship  for  the 
pilot;  the  yarn  and  the  web  for  the  weaver;  and  the  bowl  or  the 
mead  or  the  ptisan  for  the  doctor.  And  they  over  and  above 
produce  in  men  most  dangerous  and  atheistical  opinions,  while 
they  give  the  names  of  gods  to  those  natures  and  things  that  have 
in  them  neither  soul  nor  sense. 

Again  in  his  treatise  on  love,  he  says  : 

Others  affirm  Venus  to  be  nothing  but  our  concupiscence;  that 
Mercury  is  no  more  than  the  faculty  of  speech;  that  the  Muses 
are  only  the  names  for  the  arts  and  sciences;  and  that  Minerva 
is  only  a  fine  word  for  prudence.     And  thus  you  see  into  what 


178        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

an  abyss  of  atheism  we  are  like  to  plunge  ourselves,  while  we 
go  about  to  range  and  distribute  the  gods  among  the  various  pas- 
sions, faculties,  and  virtues  of  men. 

Yet  Plutarch  falls  into  the  very  habit  which  he  thus 
criticises.     Thus,  in  his  treatise  on  "Love,"  section  17, 
he    quotes  from    the   "Antigone"    of    Sophocles,   the 
784th  line,  which  portrays  Eros,  Love,  as 
Slumbering  on  a  girl's  soft  cheek; 
Sophocles  did  not  mean  that  the  god  really 
Slumbers  on  a  girl's  soft  cheek; 

he  used  his  name  merely  as  a  synonym  of  loveliness, 
of  beauty,  of  that  which  kindles  the  sentiment  of  love. 
This  was  evident  to  Plutarch,  and  to  all  his  Greek  read- 
ers ;  yet  he  quotes  the  line  to  contradict  it  in  a  passage 
which  refers  to  the  god  as  a  person,  thus  completely 
reversing  its  meaning. 

19.  Again,  in  his  treatise  entitled  "How  a  Young 
Man  Ought  to  Hear  Poems,"  he  has  a  long  discussion 
of  Greek  words  which  are  used  in  different  senses. 
Among  them  he  mentions  the  names  of  the  gods  : 

To  begin  with  the  gods,  we  should  teacli  our  youth  that  poets, 
when  they  use  the  names  of  gods,  sometimes  mean  properly  the 
names  of  divine  beings  so  called,  but  otherwliilcs  understand  by 
those  names  certain  powers  of  which  the  gods  are  donors  or 
authors,  they  having  first  led  us  into  the  use  of  them  by  their 
own  practice. 

With  this  distinction  clearly  in  his  mind,  he  quotes 
in  the  second  of  these  two  senses  passages  originally 
written  in  the  first.  Thus,  in  his  treatise  entitled 
••  How  to  Know  a  Flatterer  from  a  Friend,"  he  says: 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 79 

A  friend  is  not  a  dull  and  tasteless  thing,  nor  does  the  de- 
corum of  friendship  consist  in  sourness  and  austerity  of  temper, 
but  in  its  very  port  and  gravity  is  soft  and  amiable — 

Where  the  Graces  and  Love  have  their  houses. 

This  is  from  the  "  Theogony,"  line  64.  Plutarch  means 
by  "the  Graces  and  Love  "  "  certain  powers  of  which 
the  gods  are  donors  or  authors,"  and  which  show  them- 
selves in  our  manners.  But  Hesiod  means  "properly 
the  names  of  divine  beings,"  for  he  is  describing 
Olympus  and  its  deities,  and  his  "  houses "  are  real 
dwellings. 

20.  In  the  "Iliad,"  XXIV.,  44,  after  Achilles  has 
dragged  the  body  of  Hector  around  the  tomb  of  Mence- 
tiades,  Apollo  addresses  the  gods,  condemning  Achilles 
for  his  wanton  act,  which  showed  that  he  had  neither 
"  mercy  "  nor  "  shame."  The  word  which  we  render 
"shame"  means,  as  Mr.  Gladstone1  says,  "compas- 
sion, or  ruth,"  and  "  includes  the  idea  of  shame  and 
self-respect."  Plutarch,  however,  in  his  treatise  on 
"  Bashfulness,"  line  50,  quotes  as  if  the  word  meant 
modesty.     The  quotation  is  rendered  thus  by  Goodwin  : 

Much  harm  oft-times  from  modesty  befalls, 
Much  good  oft-times. 

21.  In  Plutarch's  treatise  on  "The  Face  Appearing 
in  the  Orb  of  the  Moon,"  sections  28  and  29,  Sylla 
argues  that  man  is  composed  of  three  parts,  body,  soul, 
and  understanding ;  the  body  given  to  him  by  the 
earth,  the  soul  by  the  moon,  and  the  understanding  by 
the  sun.     These  parts  are  separated  after  a  time  :  at 

1  "  Homer,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  434.  Liddell  and  Scott  refer  to  Gladstone's 
definition  with  approval. 


l8o        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

death  the  soul  and  the  understanding  together  forsake 
the  body  ;  and  at  a  still  later  period  the  soul  and  the 
understanding  part,  the  soul  returning  to  the  moon  and 
the  understanding  to  the  sun.  Thus  man  dies  twice. 
After  stating  his  doctrine,  and  elaborating  it  with 
much  imaginative  beauty,  Sylla  quotes  a  line  from  the 
"Odyssey,"  XL,  221  : 

The  soul,  like  a  dream,  flies  quickly  away. 

The  word  "  soul  "  he  interprets  as  referring,  not  to  the 
immortal  part  of  man,  but  to  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  mortal  and  the  immortal,  which,  when  it  re- 
turns to  the  moon,  "  retains  only  some  prints  and 
dreams  of  life."  All  the  persons  present  at  this  dia- 
logue knew  that  Homer  uses  the  word  here  rendered 
"soul"  to  designate  the  immortal  part  of  man.  The 
line  is  from  the  address  of  the  mother  of  Ulysses  in 
hades  to  her  son.  It  refers  to  the  moment  of  death  ; 
it  is  then  that 

The  soul,  like  a  dream,  flies  quickly  away. 

But  Sylla,  having  quoted  the  line  in  his  own  new  sense, 
proceeds  to  comment  upon  it  as  follows  : 

Which  it  does  not  immediately,  as  soon  as  it  is  separated  from 
the  body,  hut  afterwards,  when  it  is  alone  and  divided  from  the 
understanding. 

22.  Lucian  of  Samosata,  born  near  the  end  of 
Hadrian's  reign,  speaking  of  the  conversation  of  a  great 
philosopher,  and  comparing  it  to  an  arrow,  borrows 
from  the  "  Iliad,"  VIII.,  282  :' 

Thus  1  the  lighl  of  the  people. 

1  Lucian*  s  "  Nigrinus,"  section  So. 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND-  l8l 

Homer  uses  the  word  "  light  "  in  the  sense  of  glory  ; 
"  become  the  glory  of  the  people."  Lucian,  in  his  ac- 
commodation, uses  it  as  if  it  meant  a  means  of  en- 
lightenment. 

23.  In  Plato's  "Republic,"  Book  VIII.,  section  550, 
Socrates,  after  speaking  of  several  different  kinds  of 
States  or  governments,  the  democracy  and  the  tyranny, 
is  about  to  speak  of  the  oligarchy.  He  introduces  it 
by  a  pleasant  reference  to  a  great  poet : 

Let  us  look  at  "another  man,"  who,  as  ^Eschylus  says,  "is 
set  over  against  another  State;  "  or  rather,  as  our  plan  requires, 
begin  with  the  State. 

The  reference  is  to  the  "Seven  against  Thebes."  This 
city  had  seven  gates,  and  seven  great  warriors,  each 
leading  an  army,  assaulted  it,  so  that  there  was  one 
chief  to  each  gate.  The  messenger  to  the  king  names 
the  gates  in  order,  and  tells  him  what  chief  leads  the 
assault  against  each  one.  After  the  mention  of  the 
second  chief  the  king  says  :  "  Describe  another,  set  at 
another  gate."  As  each  chief  is  mentioned,  he  "sets 
over  against  him  "  one  of  his  own  great  champions. 
The  quotation  is  only  of  a  general  kind,  for  the  exact 
words  quoted  are  not  in  the  tragedy.  It  is  also  given 
quite  a  new  sense  ;  in  yEschylus  the  "  setting  over 
against  "  is  a  military  phrase  ;  but  in  the  quotation  it  is 
used  merely  as  a  graceful  means  of  transition  from  one 
kind  of  State  to  another,  and  one  kind  of  citizen  to 
another. 

24.  In  the  "Symposium"  of  Plato,  section  195, 
Agathon  praises  Love  as  being  young  and  tender. 
Hence,  he  says  : 

Q 


l82       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

He  ought  to  have  a  poet  like  Homer  to  describe  his  tender- 
ness, as  Homer  says  of  Ate,  that  she  is  a  goddess  and  tender: 

Her  feet  are  tender,  for  she  sets  her  steps 
Not  on  the  ground,  but  on  the  heads  of  men  ; 

all  of  which  is  an  excellent  proof  of  her  tenderness,  because  she 
walks  not  upon  the  hard,  but  upon  the  soft. 

This  is  exquisite  humor,  but  it  is  also  an  interpretation 
of  the  lines  which  their  author  never  dreamed  of.  Ate 
was  the  goddess  of  vengeance,  and  of  vengeance  in  the 
form  of  infatuation.  She  is  by  no  means  tender,  but 
on  the  contrary  remorseless.  When  Homer  says  she 
has  soft  feet,  it  is  but  a  poetic  way  of  saying  that  she 
treads  softly  and  imperceptibly  over  the  heads  of  men, 
deluding  and  blinding  them,  without  making  them 
aware  of  her  presence;  and  in  this  her  hardness  is 
shown,  rather  than  her  tenderness.  The  word  for 
tender  in  Homeric  and  other  early  Greek  never  refers 
to  gentleness  of  disposition,  but  only  to  physical  soft- 
ness. It  naturally  took  on  the  other  meaning  in  the 
lapse  of  time.  The  playful  turn  which  Plato  gives  the 
quotation  wholly  diverts  the  word  from  its  Homeric 
uses,  as  all  his  readers  would  perceive  at  a  glance. 

25.  Julian,  in  his  symposium  on  "The  Caesars,"  rep- 
resents Tiberius  as  coming  to  the  table.  His  face  was 
recognized.     Then, 

as  he  turned  to  sit  down,  his  back  displayed  several  scars, 
some  cauteries  and  sores,  severe  stripe-*  and  bruises,  scabs  and 
tumors  imprinted  by  lust  and  intemperance.      Silenus  then  said: 

'AXXoidq  fiat,  twelve,  <pri;rl';  viov  %  t<)  ~dpo(0:v. 

I  or  different  t<>  me,  ( >  guest,  thou  Be<  me  t  than  l>cf<  re. 

This  is  a  line  from    the  "Odyssey,"  XVI.,  [8l.      The 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  183 

last  word,  ndpocdsv,  like  its  English  equivalent  "before," 
has  two  principal  meanings  ;  it  may  mean  before  in 
time,  formerly ;  or  it  may  mean  the  front,  as  contrasted 
with  the  back.  In  the  passage  from  which  the  quota- 
tion is  taken  it  is  used  in  the  former  of  these  senses  : 
Pallas  had  transformed  Ulysses  by  a  touch  of  her  wand, 
so  that  Telemachus  scarcely  recognized  him,  and  ex- 
claimed :  "  Thou  seemest  other  than  thou  wast  before." 
Julian  uses  the  word  satirically  of  the  contrast  between 
the  face  of  Tiberius  and  the  back,  and  this  use  of  the 
Homeric  line  in  a  new  sense  is  a  part  of  the  sting 
which  the  speech  inflicts. 

26.  The  only  instance  of  this  kind  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament that  has  created  any  serious  objection  is  at 
Rom.  10  :  6-8.  The  quotation  is  from  Deut.  30  :  11- 
14,  where  it  refers  to  the  commandment  which  God 
had  given  the  people,  of  which  they  could  not  say  that 
they  were  ignorant  : 

"  This  commandment  which  I  command  thee  this  day, 
it  is  not  too  hard  for  thee,  neither  is  it  far  off.  It  is 
not  in  heaven,  that  thou  shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go 
up  for  us  to  heaven,  and  bring  it  unto  us,  and  make  us 
to  hear  it,  that  we  may  do  it  ?  Neither  is  it  beyond 
the  sea,  that  thou  shouldest  say,  Who  shall  go  over  the 
sea  for  us,  and  bring  it  unto  us,  and  make  us  to  hear  it, 
that  we  may  do  it  ?  But  the  word  is  very  nigh  unto 
thee,  in  thy  mouth,  and  in  thy  heart,  that  thou  mayest 
do  it." 

The  language  is  reproduced  freely  by  the  Apostle 
Paul,  with  reference  to  Christ  in  his  relation  to  "  the 
righteousness  which  is  of  faith  "  : 

"  The  righteousness  which  is  of  faith  saith  thus,  Say 


184        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

not  in  thy  heart,  Who  shall  ascend  into  heaven  ?  (that 
is,  to  bring  Christ  down) ;  or,  Who  shall  descend  into 
the  abyss  ?  (that  is,  to  bring  Christ  up  from  the  dead). 
But  what  saith  it  ?  The  word  is  nigh  thee,  in  thy 
mouth  and  in  thy  heart  :  that  is,  the  word  of  faith, 
which  we  preach." 

Here  is  both  a  change  of  language  and  of  meaning : 
the  word  "  abyss  "  is  used,  instead  of  the  "  sea  "  of  the 
Septuagint  original,  because  it  has  two  meanings.  It 
may  mean  "sea,"  as  in  the  Septuagint,  or  it  may  mean 
hades,  the  world  of  spirits  (Luke  8  :  31  :  Rev.  9:1, 
2,  1 1  ;  1 1  :  7  ;  17  :  8  ;  20  :  1,  3).  The  apostle  uses  it 
in  the  latter  sense,  which  the  "sea"  of  the  original 
passage  would  not  admit. 

Thus  the  passage  belongs  in  principle  to  both  the 
second  and  third  classes  now  under  examination,  for  it 
presents  us  a  change  of  reference  effected  by  means 
of  a  change  of  language,  and  also  by  means  of  a  new 
pivotal  sense  attached  to  the  new  word.  It  is  precisely 
in  the  line  of  the  numerous  examples  which  I  have  ad- 
duced from  secular  literature,  and,  had  it  been  found  in 
Cowper,  in  Gladstone,  in  Plato,  in  Julian,  it  would  have 
occasioned  no  unfavorable  comment.  It  is,  in  one 
sense  of  the  words,  "quotation  by  sound,"  as  Kuenen 
calls  it  ;  but  it  is  "  quotation  by  sound  "  exactly  as  the 
preceding  instances  are  "quotation  by  sound."  The 
apostle  does  not  quote  for  proof.  He  does  not  say 
that  he  quotes  at  all,  knowing  that  his  readers  will 
,ni/.e  the  source  of  the  words  for  themselves,  as 
the  passage  was  familiar,  and  even  famous,  1  Ie  quotes 
for  rhetorical  embellishment  and  illustration,  as  Cowper 
in  his  quotation  from  the  "  Paradise   Lost  "  ;  and, 


QUOTATIONS   BY  SOUND  1 85 

like  Cowper,  he  sets  the  words  in  their  new  connection 
by  means  of  explanatory  remarks.  In  the  presence  of 
the  examples  of  the  same  kind  now  adduced,  the  efforts 
of  adverse  critics  to  impeach  the  honesty  of  the  writer, 
and  of  the  more  believing  critics  to  show  that  the  pas- 
sage refers  to  the  same  thing  in  Deuteronomy  and  in 
Romans,  ought  alike  to  cease. 


IX 

DOUBLE  REFERENCE 

I.    The  Case  Stated. 

THE  writers  of  the  New  Testament  often  treat  as  re- 
lating to  the  Messiah  and  his  kingdom  passages 
written  with  reference  to  persons  who  lived  and  events 
which  happened  centuries  before  the  Christian  era. 
There  are  direct  Messianic  predictions  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, like  Isa.  53,  to  which  the  New  Testament 
writers  appeal  in  not  less  than  thirteen  places,  or  like 
Isa.  8  :  23  ;  9  :  1,  2  ;  Zech.  9:9-17.  The  predictions 
of  this  kind,  however,  are  relatively  few  in  number,  and 
usually  the  passages  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  as 
pointing  forward  to  Christ  were  occasioned  by  some 
person  or  event  contemporary  with  the  prophet. 

//  The  Debate. 
The  fact  just  stated  has  given  rise  to  a  protracted 
debate.  On  the  one  side  it  is  claimed  that  there  is  a 
twofold  reference  in  these  passages,  the  primary  to  the 
contemporary  person  or  event,  the  secondary  to  Christ 
and  his  kingdom.  On  the  other  side  it  is  maintained 
that  there  is  but  one  reference,  and  that  the  theory  of 
double  reference  is  a  makeshift,  an  expedient  of  despair, 
a  confession  of  defeat  Davidson1  expresses  what 
may  be  called  the  modern  rationalistic  view  of  proph 

1  "  Introduction  t<>  the  New  Testament,"  Vol.  I.,  p  9S. 
186 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  1S7 

ecy  when  he  says  :  "  It  is  an  axiom  of  interpretation 
that  no  passage  has  more  than  one  sense."  He  makes 
haste,  however,  to  modify  the  statement  by  writing  on 
the  same  page  :  "In  making  these  remarks,  we  do  not 
deny  that  deeper  meanings  may  be  hid  under  the  Old 
Testament  history."  The  great  majority  of  his  school 
of  interpretation  are  less  timid,  and  make  the  denial 
without  qualification.  The  conclusion  drawn  from  the 
denial  is  natural  :  if  there  is  no  secondary  reference  in 
the  Old  Testament,  then,  for  the  skeptic,  the  use  made 
of  the  Old  Testament  by  the  writers  of  the  New  is  the 
result  either  of  dishonesty  or  ignorance.  It  is  usually 
pronounced  the  result  of  ignorance  by  these  critics, 
with  an  occasional  insinuation  of  the  other  motive. 
Tholuck  says  :  ' 

The  industry  of  the  elder  critics  had  collected  a  great  number 
of  examples  of  arbitrary  hermeneutics  in  the  rabbinic  writings. 
Le  Clerc  and  Wetstein  had  already  given  hints  to  deduce  conse- 
quences from  these  premises.  In  our  own  times  this  step  has 
been  taken.  Supplied  with  the  materials  collected  by  the  elder 
critics,  Dopke,  in  his  "New  Testament  Hermeneutics,"  at- 
tempts to  prove  that  never,  in  any  generation,  was  a  more  ab- 
surd mode  of  interpretation  adopted  than  that  of  the  rabbis,  and 
that  the  apostles,  in  this  respect,  made  no  exception  to  the  errors 
of  their  nation.  Already  this  opinion  has  been  brought  forward 
as  an  indubitable  deduction  by  such  interpreters  as  Bohme,  Riick- 
ert,  and  Meyer.  Only  one  consequence  remains  to  be  drawn, 
namely,  that  the  appeals  of  the  Redeemer  to  passages  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  to  be  put  in  the  same  class. 

But  this  consequence  has  since  been  drawn,  as  wit- 
ness the  following  words  from  Toy's  "  Quotations  "  :  "  If 
he  did  not  know  the  day  of  the  consummation  (Matt. 

1  "  The  Old  Testament  in  the  New." 


188        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

24  :  36),  why  should  he  be  supposed  to  know  the  sci- 
ence of  the  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  be- 
gan to  exist  centuries  after  his  death  ?  " 

But  the  relationships  of  the  two  Testaments  as 
wholes,  and  the  typical  nature  of  many  observances 
prescribed  in  the  Old  Testament  and  of  events  recorded 
and  characters  celebrated  in  it,  are  so  evident  that  sev- 
eral of  the  deeper  thinkers  of  the  less  orthodox  schools 
of  criticism  have  not  failed  to  recognize  them.  Thus 
Bilroth  says  in  his  Commentary  on  1  Cor.  1:19: 

According  to  his  custom,  the  apostle  supports  his  assertions  by- 
passages  from  the  Old  Testament,  which,  indeed,  do  not  always 
suit,  in  a  strictly  historical  sense,  as  if  the  writers  meant  what 
Paul  means  in  the  connection  in  which  he  introduces  them,  but 
which,  according  to  the  words,  have  a  resemblance.  In  order 
not  to  involve  Paul  as  well  as  the  other  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  even  Christ  himself,  in  a  charge  of  ignorance,  or 
indeed,  of  disingenuousness,  -we  must  maintain  the  view,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Old  Testament,  taken  altogether,  is  a  type 
of  the  New;  so  that,  for  example,  the  predictions  of  the  prophets 
are  not  to  be  so  applied  to  the  Messiah  as  if  the  writers  had  con- 
sciously referred  to  the  historical  Christ,  who  was  burn  under  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  but  so  that  in  the  words  they  utter 
the  same  Spirit  of  God  expresses  himself  which  penetrates  the 
whole  history  organically,  and  which  has  also  appeared  in 
Christianity.  This  organic  conception  and  exposition  of  his- 
torical phenomena,  which,  in  a  historical  and  philological  re- 
spect, is  entirely  free  from  the  fault  of  attributing  to  men  of  an- 
cient times  a  conscious  knowledge  that  could  not  exist  until  a 
later  period,  is  capable  of  universal  application,  even  in  the  sci- 
entific representation  of  mythology.  Applied  to  the  relation  be- 
tween the  ( >1<1  and  New  Testament,  it  at  on<  <•  puts  an  end  to  all 
the  misunderstandings  on  this  subject  which  have  prevailed, 
and  have  given  occasion  to  many  complaints,  and  too  often  to 
spiteful  witticisms. 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  1S9 

This  interpretation  itself  needs  interpreting,  in  order 
that  we  may  understand  its  whole  meaning ;  but  it  is 
plain  that  the  writer  has  been  convinced  of  the  deep 
underlying  relationship  of  the  two  Dispensations  and 
the  two  Books.  Something  like  this  view  is  that  of 
Bleek,  Umbreit,  and  De  Wette,  the  last,  however,  going 
farther,  and  speaking  with  surer  insight  and  deeper 
enthusiasm  : l 

Long  before  Christ,  the  world  in  which  he  was  to  appear  was 
prepared:  the  whole  Old  Testament  is  a  great  prophecy,  a  great 
type  of  him  who  was  to  come,  and  who  did  come.  Who  can 
deny  that  the  holy  seers  of  the  Old  Testament  saw,  in  spirit,  long 
beforehand,  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  had  presages  of  the  new 
doctrine  in  prophetic  anticipations,  varying  in  clearness  ?  The 
typological  comparison  of  the  Old  Testament  with  the  New 
was  no  unmeaning  amusement.  And  it  is  scarcely  a  mere  acci- 
dent that  the  evangelical  history,  in  the  more  important  points, 
runs  parallel  with  the  Mosaic. 

Yet  almost  all  the  more  radical  rationalistic  critics 
to-day  deny  the  element  of  double  reference  in  Scripture, 
and  seek  to  wield  the  denial  as  a  weapon  against  the 
faith  of  Christendom  that  the  Bible  is  a  special  divine 
revelation.  Some  conservative  interpreters  have  also 
felt  that  they  could  not  defend  the  theory  of  double 
reference,  among  whom  Tholuck  classes  Geier,  J.  H. 
Michaelis,  J.  D.  Michaelis,  Ch.  Fr.  Schmid,  and  Cremer, 
who  denied  the  primary  historic  sense  of  many  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament  applied  in  the  New  to  Christ,  and 
taught  that  they  were  simply  and  solely  intended  for 
the  Messiah,  even  when  uttered  in  the  first  person  by 
the  Hebrew  writer.     The  earliest  of  these  interpreters 

1  Quoted  by  Tholuck  in  his  "  Old  Testament  in  the  New." 


190       QUOTATIONS   OF   TIIK    NEW   TESTAMENT 

was  Chrysostom,  who  saw  in  the  prophetic  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament  a  structure  of  fragments  :  "  For 
this  is  the  form  of  prophecy,"  he  says,  "to  break  off 
and  interpolate  a  historical  portion,  and  after  this  has 
been  narrated  to  return  to  the  former  topic."  The  latest 
and  ablest  conservative  •  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of 
double  sense  in  Scripture  is  Stuart  in  the  "  Excursus  " 
appended  to  his  "  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews."  He  regards  some  passages,  which  seem  to 
be  quoted  as  proofs,  like  Heb.  1  :  6,  as  mere  expres- 
sions of  the  thought  of  the  New  Testament  writer  in 
the  words  of  the  Old,  "just  as  we  now  borrow  Scripture 
language  every  day  to  convey  our  own  ideas,  without 
feeling  it  to  be  at  all  necessary  to  prove,  in  every  case, 
that  the  same  meaning  was  originally  conveyed  by  the 
words  that  we  attach  to  them  in  our  discourse."  This 
is  true,  as  I  show  in  the  third  chapter  of  this  book  ; 
but  it  is  true  only  of  illustrative  or  decorative  quota- 
tions, and  not  of  those  cited  as  evidences  in  formal  ar- 
gument, like  many  of  the  quotations  in  the  first  chap- 
ter of  Hebrews,  where  the  author  is  engaged  in  demon- 
strating the  dignity  of  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God. 
Other  quotations  Stuart  regards  as  directed  to  the  spe- 
cial state  of  mind  of  those  addressed,  as  for  example 
in  Heb.  1  :  11,  12,  where  he  says  that  the  writer  quotes 
a  passage  with  reference  to  the  Messiah  which  perhaps 
has  no  original  relation  to  him,  but  which  the  Jews  be- 
lieved  to  have  relation  to  him,  so  that  they  would  con- 
cede to  it  a  force  it  does  not  really  possess.  This  dan- 
gerous   ground    is    occupied    also    by    Sender,     Ernesti, 

Teller,  and  Griesbach,  and  that  such  a  man  as  Stuart 
should  venture  upon  it,  however  cautiously,  shows  the 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  191 

sore  straits  to  which  the  denial  of  double  reference  in 
Scripture  must  drive  those  believers  who  make  it. 

Palfrey '  is  almost  the  only  conservative  American 
theologian  who  has  followed  Stuart  :  he  says  :  "  The 
statement  of  two  senses  in  a  passage,  indeed,  is  noth- 
ing short  of  a  contradiction  in  terms." 

But,  in  spite  of  these  denials,  the  great  majority 
of  Christian  writers  of  every  nationality  have  per- 
ceived that  the  Scriptures  contain  many  passages 
which  refer  to  more  than  one  thing,  and  several  dif- 
ferent theories  have  been  brought  forward  to  account 
for  this  feature  of  the  sacred  writings. /Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia  was  perhaps  the  first  of  this  school  ;  he 
investigated  carefully  the  historic  circumstances  out 
of  which  the  Old  Testament  passages  grew,  yet  justi- 
fied their  quotation  in  the  New,  saying  that  God,  as 
the  original  author  of  both  Testaments,  shaped  the 
Old  in  relation  to  the  Newyfeo  that  the  former  contains 
emblems  of  the  latter,  like  the  exodus,  the  brazen  ser- 
pent, the  prophet  Jonah,  and  the  sacrifices.  He  found 
these  emblems,  however,  only  occasionally,  not  perceiv- 
ing the  organic  relation  of  the  Testaments  as  a  whole. 

It  was  to  be  anticipated  that  it  would  be  long  before 
the  broad  organic  relationship  of  the  two  Testaments 
would  be  recognized  and  fully  described,  and  the  many 
tvpical  passages  of  Scripture  weighed  in  just  balances  ; 
and  that,  during  the  progress  of  the  study,  many 
glimpses  of  the  truth  would  be  had,  accurate  within 
narrow  limits,  but  waiting  for  completion  in  broader 
views  and  more  general  statements. 

1  "  Academical  Lectures,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  344. 


192       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

Such  is  the  saying  of  Grotius  that  "  one  and  the 
same  prophecy  can  be  more  than  once  fulfilled,  so  as  to 
be  appropriate  to  both  this  time  and  that,  not  only  by 
the  event,  but  also  by  divine  guidance  of  the  words." 
There  are  many  prophetic  passages,  touching  primarily 
some  person  or  event  of  the  time  when  they  were  writ- 
ten, but  containing  language  far  surpassing  the  imme- 
diate occasions,  which,  as  Grotius  did  not  perceive, 
were  "  shadows  of  the  good  things  to  come." 

Such  also  is  the  deep  saying  of  Bacon,1  that 

divine  prophecies,  being  of  the  nature  of  their  Author,  with 
whom  a  thousand  years  are  but  as  one  day,  are  therefore  not 
fulfilled  punctually  at  once,  but  have  springing  and  germinant 
accomplishments,  though  the  height  and  fullness  of  them  may 
refer  to  some  one  age. 

Here  also  belongs  the  ingenious  but  somewhat  arti- 
ficial theory  of  Sherlock.  - 

As  two  covenants  were  given  to  Abraham  and  his  seed,  one  a 
temporal  covenant,  to  take  place,  and  to  be  performed  in  the 
land  of  Canaan;  the  other  a  covenant  of  better  hopes,  and  to  be 
performed  in  a  better  country;  so  are  the  prophecies  given  to 
Abraham  and  his  children  after  him  of  two  kinds;  one  relative 
to  the  temporal  covenant,  and  given  in  discharge  and  execution 
of  God's  temporal  promises;  the  other  relative  to  the  spiritual 
i.uit,  ^iven  to  confirm  and  establish  the  hopes  of  futurity, 
and  to  prepare  and  make  ready  the  people  for  the  reception  of 
the  kingdom  of  Cod.  Many  of  tin-  am  ienl  prophet  ies  relate  to 
both  1  o\  enants;  and  hence  it  comes  to  pass  that  at  the  first  appear- 
ance  many  <>\  the  ancienl  predictions  seem  to  be  hardly  consist- 

1  "Advancement  <>i   Learning."     Second  Book,  111.,  2. 

*  "The  Use  and   Intent  "i  Prophecy.     Six  Discourses."     Bj  Thomas 

Sherlock,  i>.  d.  I  ondon,  17;--  li  is  m  the  fifth  "I  these  discourses  tint 
the  author  works  out  his  theory  of  the  two  covenants  to  account  for  the 
element  1  •  !   double  --use  in  prophi 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  193 

ent  with  themselves,  but  to  be  made  up  of  ideas  which  can  never 
unite  in  one  person  or  one  event.  Thus,  the  promises  to  David 
of  a  son  to  succeed  in  his  throne  have  some  circumstances  which 
are  applicable  only  to  Solomon  and  the  temporal  dominion  over 
the  house  of  Israel  ;  and  some  which  are  peculiar  to  the  Son  of 
David,  who  was  heir  of  an  everlasting  kingdom,  which  was  to  be 
established  in  truth  and  righteousness.  Hence  it  is  that  we 
often  find  the  promises  of  temporal  felicity  and  temporal  deliv- 
erance raised  so  high  that  no  temporal  felicity  or  temporal  de- 
liverance can  answer  the  description,  the  thoughts  and  expres- 
sions of  the  prophet  naturally  moving  from  the  blessings  of  one 
covenant  to  the  blessings  of  the  other,  and  sometimes  describing 
the  inconceivable  glories  of  one  covenant  by  expressions  and 
similitudes  borrowed  from  the  more  sensible  glories  and  blessings 
of  the  other. 

Orelli  has  made  a  conservative  statement  of  the  doc- 
trine of  types  : l 

In  modern  days  natural  philosophers  have  established  in  de- 
tail the  designed  connection  in  the  structure  of  the  different  pe- 
riods. Thus  the  most  perfect  being,  man,  presents  himself 
first  in  imperfect  preformation  in  the  animals  which,  the  higher 
their  grade,  so  much  the  more  plainly  prefigure  the  structure  of 
man.  Just  so  there  are  types  in  history.  Both  phenomena,  the 
typical  and  the  perfect,  must  have  received  from  the  same  spirit 
their  distinctive  character  by  which  they  resemble  each  other,  so 
that  an  inner  relation  obtains  between  them.  And  as  certainly 
as  the  form  of  the  Israelitish  nationality  was  meant  by  God's 
will  to  present  a  preliminary  reign  of  God,  so  an  inner  relation 
must  exist  between  this  still  imperfect  kingdom  of  God  and  the 
perfect  one.  And  this  inner  affinity  will  necessarily  find  expres- 
sion also  in  the  outer  life  of  this  nationality,  so  far  as  that  life  is 
determined  by  God.  Not  merely  the  ritual  and  polity  of  Israel, 
so  far  as  they  are  ordered  by  God,  but  its  experiences  also,  as 
far  as  these  befall  it  as  God's  people,  will  by  inner  necessity  pre- 

1  "  Old  Testament  Prophecy,"  p.  38. 
R 


IQ4       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

sent  beforehand  what  awaits  God's  perfected  people,  provided 
it  is  the  same  God  who  reveals  his  will,  here  preliminarily,  there 
finally. 

Hofmann '  would  extend  this  statement  to  all 
history  : 

Every  triumphal  procession  that  marched  through  the  streets 
of  Rome  was  a  prophecy  of  Caesar  Augustus  ;  for  what  the  latter 
represented  always,  this  the  Victor  represented  on  his  festival 
day,  God  in  man,  Jupiter  in  the  Roman  citizen.  In  according 
this  pageant  to  its  victors,  Rome  proclaimed  as  its  future  that  it 
would  rule  the  world  through  its  divinely  worshiped  imperator. 

Orelli  quotes  this  passage  with  approval,  but  adds 
that  the  Victor  in  the  triumphal  procession  should  be 
regarded  as  a  type,  rather  than  as  a  prophecy,  of  Caesar 
Augustus. 

All  the  deeper  and  warmer  among  the  recent  exposi- 
tors of  Holy  Scripture,*  even  if  in  some  instances  they 
occupy  a  position  of  doubt,  recognize  the  typical  rela- 
tion of  the  Old  Testament  in  general  to  the  New.  I 
may  mention,  as  representing  the  large  class  to  which 
1  refer,  Tholuck,  De  Wette,  Lucke,  Bleek,  Umbreit, 
Olshausen,  and  Beck,  none  of  whom  will  be  suspected 
of  special  regard  for  an  extreme  dogmatism.  Alford 
gives  expression  in  these  strong  sentences  to  the  view 
generally  held  : 

No  word  prompted  by  the  Holy  Ghost  had  reference  to  the 
utterer  only.     All  Israel  was  a  type:  all  spiritual  Israel  set  forth 
"  the  second  Man, "  "  the  quickening  Spirit " ;  all  the 
of  l  kid's  suffering  people  prefigured  and  found  their  fullest  mean- 
ing in  his  groans  who  was  the  chief  in  suffering.     The  maxim 

1  "Weissagung  and  Erflillung,"  I.,  15. 

1  the  *•  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,'1  Dissertation  I. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  195 

cannot  be  too  firmly  held  or  too  widely  applied,  that  all  the  Old 
Testament  utterances  of  the  Spirit  anticipate  Christ,  just  as  all 
his  New  Testament  utterances  set  forth  and  expound  Christ : 
that  Christ  is  everywhere  involved  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  he 
is  everywhere  evolved  in  the  New  Testament. 

This  typical  view  of  the  Old  Testament  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  New,  and  the  typical  view  of  history  and 
character  in  general,  may  be  accepted  as  true  ,  and 
they  will  enable  us  to  account  for  many  of  the  double 
references  of  Holy  Scripture.  But  they  do  not  enable 
us  to  account  for  all.  Perhaps  it  is  true,  as  W.  F. 
Adeney 1  says,  that  the  "  typical  significance  of  the 
three  days  of  Jonah's  imprisonment  cannot  be  supposed 
to  contain  any  mysterious  intentional  relation  to  their 
antitypes.  They  can  only  be  regarded  as  popular  alle- 
gorical symbols."  Not  all  minds  can  grasp  the  deep 
thought  of  the  vital  inner  relations  of  history  and 
character  which  create  outer  relations.  Where  there 
is  one  person  sufficiently  cultivated  to  do  so,  there  are 
a  hundred  who  are  much  more  deeply  impressed  by 
some  external  coincidence.  May  it  not  be,  therefore, 
that  the  Holy  Spirit,  having  a  very  practical  purpose 
at  heart,  the  salvation  of  the  greatest  number  possible, 
has  provided  means  of  arresting  the  attention  of  plain 
people,  by  placing  in  the  Scriptures  types  and  symbols 
of  a  popular  and  external  kind,  as  well  as  such  as  appeal 
to  the  philosopher  and  the  historian  ? 

Beck  2  has  made  a  valuable  contribution  to  the  dis- 
cussion in  a  treatise  which  Tholuck  thus  summarizes  : 

1  "  Hebrew  Utopia,"  p.  67. 

2  "  Versuch  einer  pneumatisch  hermeneutischen  Entwicklung  des  neunten 
Kapitels  im  Briefe  an  die  Romer." 


196       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

If,  indeed,  the  apostles  knew  how  to  extract  from  the  Old 
Testament  an  anticipation  of  the  New  so  entirely  pertinent,  and 
such  anticipations,  types,  and  points  of  connection  could  be 
found  nowhere  but  in  the  Old  Testament  writings,  one  and  the 
same  divine  Spirit  must  have  superintended  on  both  sides — there 
to  ordain  the  points  of  connection,  and  here  to  impart  the  capa- 
bility of  perceiving  and  laying  hold  of  them.  What  is  it  which 
gives  to  analogies  taken  from  the  sphere  of  nature  to  illustrate 
spiritual  relations,  that  power  of  conviction  over  the  mind  ?  Is 
it  the  simple  parallelism  ?  Or  is  it  the  inseparable  conviction  of 
the  unity  of  the  Spirit  that  rules  in  both  departments  ? 

The  view  of  Dr.  Arnold  is  striking  :  "  Every  proph- 
ecy has,  according  to  the  very  definition  of  the  word, 
a  double  sense  ;  it  has,  if  I  may  venture  so  to  speak, 
two  authors,  the  one  human,  the  other  divine."  This 
is  quoted  by  W.  F.  Adeney/  who  adds  an  explanation 
of  it  :  "The  prophet  is  not  required  to  give  more  than 
one  meaning  to  his  words,  but  a  secondary  and  higher 
signification  is  supposed  to  be  infused  into  them  by 
the  influence  of  the  divine  inspiration." 

Something  like  this  is  the  ground  taken  in  a  thought- 
ful article  in  the  "  Studien  und  Kritiken,"  [866,  entitled 
"  Ueber  doppelten  Schriftsinn  '  The  author  calls 
attention  to  "the  unity  of  religious  experience  which 
runs  throughout  all  the  Scriptures,"  giving  passages  a 
predictive  cast  "  which  are  not  in  themselves  strictly 
predictive,"  and  thus  forming  a  ground  of  double 
sense. 

The  organic  relation  of  the  two  Testaments  was  at 

th  worked  out  admirably  by  Tholuck  in  his  "Old 

I     :  iment  in  the  New."     The  view  has  been  already 

noons  <.n  the  Interpretatii  n  of   Pn  phi  cj ."  p.  41, 
•'  •■  I  [(  brew  1  topia,'   p,  50, 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  197 

presented  in  the  language  of  others,  but  I  take  pleasure 
in  referring  the  reader  to  a  discussion  of  it  so  able,  so 
profound,  and  so  devout. 

Some  of  those  who  refuse  to  use  the  term  "  double 
sense,"  present  to  us  in  other  words  the  thing  meant 
by  it.     Thus  Briggs  '  writes  : 

There  is  no  double  sense  to  Hebrew  prediction.  The  predic- 
tion has  but  one  sense.  But  inasmuch  as  the  prediction  ad- 
vances from  the  temporal  redemption  of  its  circumstances  to  the 
eternal  redemption  of  the  Messiah,  and  it  is  part  of  a  series  of 
predictions  in  which  the  experience  of  redemption  is  advancing, 
it  cannot  be  otherwise  than  that  some  of  the  elements  of  the  pre- 
dicted redemption  should  be  realized  in  historical  experience  ere 
the  essential  elements  of  the  Messianic  redemption  is  attained. 

Again 2  he  says  : 

The  Hebrew  prophets  rise  to  the  most  intricate  themes  in  their 
symbolism.  They  not  only  use  the  external  history  of  the  past, 
with  its  great  persons,  institutions,  and  events,  but  they  freely 
employ  the  great  persons,  institutions,  and  events  of  their  own 
times,  and  even  enter  into  their  own  souls,  in  order  to  represent 
the  innermost  experiences  of  future  persons  and  generations. 

A  large  part  of  this  controversy  might  have  been 
avoided  had  writers  on  both  sides  used  the  term 
"double  reference"  instead  of  the  term  "double 
sense."  There  arises  in  every  mind  an  immediate 
objection  to  the  statement  that  any  language  is  used 
in  a  "double  sense"  ;  and  the  statement  seems  at  first 
to  be  "a  contradiction  in  terms,"  as  Palfrey  pronounces 
it.  A  little  reflection  ought  to  remove  this  first  im- 
pression, for  one  cannot  read  far  in  any  literature  with- 

1  "  Messianic  Prophecy,"  p.  65.     2  Ibid,  p.  48. 


198       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

out  coming  upon  words  which  are  plainly  used,  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  in  a  double  sense,  as  I  shall  show 
in  a  moment.  But,  alas  !  even  scholarly  criticism  too 
often  moves  upon  the  surface,  limits  its  view  to  nar- 
io\v  fields  of  debate,  and  yields  to  first  impressions 
and  party  catchwords.  Moreover,  the  term  "  double 
sense  "  carries  with  it  the  shadows  of  moral  condemna- 
tion ;  it  suggests  the  phrase  of  Tennyson,  "  to  palter 
in  a  double  sense"  ;  and  hence  every  reverent  mind  is 
reluctant  to  use  it  with  reference  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  skeptical  critics  are  quick  to  take  advantage 
of  this  feeling,  and  may  almost  be  said,  even  while 
objecting  to  the  doctrine  of  a  "double  sense"  in  the 
Bible,  to  employ  the  term  itself  in  a  "  double  sense," 
one  ostensibly  innocent,  but  suggesting  the  other  which 
is  full  of  blame.  I  shall  therefore  use  the  term  "double 
reference,"  in  order,  as  far  as  possible,  to  avoid  the 
preconceptions  associated  with  the  term  "  double 
sense." 

III.    The  Usage  of  Literatures. 

On  both  sides  of  the  debate  the  contestants 
have  assumed  that  it  could  take  into  view  no  wider 
ground  than  that  of  the  Hebrew  writings,  biblical  and 
rabbinic,  and  it  has  not  occurred  to  any  one  to  ask 
whether  double  reference  is  a  characteristic  of  any 
other  literature.  I  purpose,  therefore,  to  cany  the 
inquiry  into  this  new  field.  I  affirm  not  only  that 
double  reference  is  found  in  all  the  great  literatures  of 
the  world,  ancient  and  modern,  but  that  instances  of  it 
abound  in  them.  Indeed,  a  literature  would  hardly  be 
worthy   the    name   that    did    not   often   present  to   the 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  199 

reader  sudden  ascensions  from  the  low  to  the  lofty, 
from  the  actual  to  the  ideal,  from  the  obvious  and 
commonplace  to  the  region  of  all  dreams,  imaginations, 
and  hopes.  Moreover,  the  secular  literatures  give  us 
many  examples  of  all  the  different  kinds  of  double 
reference  which  Christian  scholars  have  ever  claimed 
that  they  discover  in  the  Old  Testament  as  interpreted 
by  the  apostles  and  evangelists.  I  shall  now  make 
these  assertions  good  by  evidence  far  more  than  suffi- 
cient for  the  purpose. 

To  render  my  meaning  clear  at  once,  I  refer  the 
reader  to  two  exquisite  American  poems,  both  inspired 
by  the  building  of  a  ship  ;  one  by  Whittier,  the  other 
by  Longfellow.  The  poem  by  Whittier  has  but  one 
reference,  and  all  its  language  is  appropriate  to  this. 
But  the  poem  of  Longfellow  has  in  parts  a  triple  refer- 
ence, one  to  a  ship,  another  to  a  bride,  and  yet  another 
to  the  commonwealth.  In  the  earlier  part  of  this 
well-known  poem,  only  the  first  reference  is  found. 
After  this  the  ship  is  represented  as  a  bride  passing  to 
the  arms  of  her  husband,  only  that  a  real  bride,  the 
daughter  of  the  builder,  may  be  introduced.  At  the 
very  close  the  State  comes  into  view,  and  we  perceive 
that  the  poet,  from  the  beginning  of  his  work,  has 
looked  upon  his  ship  as  a  type  of  the  State,  and  its 
beginning  as  a  type  of  the  process  by  which  our 
country  has  been  made  what  it  is  : 

Thou  too,  sail  on,  oh  ship  of  State, 
Sail  on,  oh  Union,  strong  and  great. 

We  know  what  Master  laid  thy  keel, 
What  workmen  wrought  thy  ribs  of  steel. 


200       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  element  of  double  reference  is  a  marked  feature 
of  the  poetry  of  Tennyson.  Thus  he  himself  tells  us 
that  the  "  Idyls  of  the  King"  are  designed  not  merely 
to  relate  again  the  old  legend  of  Arthur,  but  to  sing 
the  "warfare  of  sense  against  the  soul,"  a  meaning 
which  we  can  all  find,  now  that  the  author  has  pointed 
us  to  it. 

Having  begun  with  illustrations  of  double  reference 
in  the  poetry  of  our  language,  I  shall  limit  my  further 
citations  from  English  literature  to  this  field,  and  to 
the  works  of  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  and  Milton,  asking 
the  reader  to  search  elsewhere  for  himself,  and  assur- 
ing him  that  he  will  discover  abundant  instances  in 
every  direction,  in  both  prose  and  verse. 

All  critics  recognize  the  element  of  double  reference 
in  Spenser ;  thus  Craik '  tells  us  that  "  The  Shepherd's 
Calendar,"  though  consisting  of  twelve  distinct  poems 
denominated  "/Eclogues,"  is  less  a  pastoral  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation,  than  a  piece  of  polemical  or 
party  divinity.  Spenser's  shepherds  are,  for  the  most 
part,  pastors  of  the  church,  or  clergymen,  with  only 
pious  parishioners  for  sheep.  One  is  a  good  shepherd, 
such  as  Algrind,  that  is,  the  puritanical  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Grindall.  Another,  represented  in  a  much 
less  favorable  light,  is  Morell,  that  is,  his  famous  an- 
tagonist, Elmore,  or  Aylmer,  bishop  of  London.  His 
t Mm  ill  ^Eclogue  celebrates  Queen  Elizabeth  under  the 
character  of  Eliza,  a  shepherdess.  1  lis  "  Faerie  Queene" 
he  himself  calls  "a  continued  allegory,  or  dark  con- 
ceit."    The  character  of  the   Fairy  Queen  is  intended 

1  "  History  "I  th'-  English  Literature  and  Language,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  4S7  ft. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  201 

to  represent  glory ;  but  she  stands  also  for  Queen 
Elizabeth,  "  the  most  excellent  and  glorious  person." 
Indeed,  a  series  of  triple  references  runs  through  the 
whole  poem,  for,  not  only  one  of  the  virtues,  but  also 
"  some  eminent  individual  of  the  day  appears  in  like 
manner  to  have  been  shadowed  forth  in  each  of  the 
other  figures."  Craik  advises  us,  if  we  "would  enjoy 
the  'Faerie  Queene'  as  a  poem,"  to  forget  all  but  the 
primary  references,  and  to  read  it  as  a  story. 

The  element  of  double  reference  is  found  in  Shakes- 
peare. Take,  for  example,  the  famous  passage  of  the 
"  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,"  in  which  Oberon  orders 
Puck  to  fetch  the  flower  called  "love-in-idleness"  : 

That  very  time  I  saw  (but  thou  could' st  not), 

Flying  between  the  cold  moon  and  the  earth, 

Cupid  all  armed;  a  certain  aim  he  took 

At  a  fair  vestal,  throned  by  the  west  ; 

And  loosed  his  love-shaft  smartly  from  his  bow, 

As  it  should  pierce  a  hundred  thousand  hearts  ; 

But  I  might  see  young  Cupid's  fiery  shaft 

Quenched  in  the  chaste  beams  of  the  wat'ry  moon; 

And  the  imperial  vot'ress  passed  on, 

In  maiden  meditation,  fancy-free. 

Yet  marked  I  where  the  bolt  of  Cupid  fell  ; 

It  fell  upon  a  little  western  flower — 

Before  milk-white,  now  purple  with  Love's  wound — 

And  maidens  call  it  love-in-idleness. 

Fetch  me  that  flower. 

This  passage  is  appropriate  to  the  fairy  world,  and 
the  ordinary  reader  finds  in  it  no  reference  besides  ; 
but  its  setting  is  in  fact  historical.  "  It  has  always 
been    agreed,"    says  Gervinus,1   "  that  by  the  'vestal, 

1  "  Commentaries  on  Shakespeare,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  264. 


202       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

throned  by  the  west,'  from  whom  Cupid's  shaft  glided 
off,  Queen  Elizabeth  was  intended."  So  much  is  al- 
lowed by  all  students  of  Shakespeare ;  but  many  of 
them  go  farther,  and  see  in  "Cupid  all  armed"  the 
Earl  of  Leicester,  the  suitor  of  the  royal  virgin,  whose 
festivities  at  Kenilworth  were  intended  to  promote  his 
love-making.  Among  the  spectacles  exhibited  to  the 
Queen,  a  singing  mermaid  played  a  part,  who  swam 
upon  the  back  of  a  dolphin,  amid  a  firework  of  shoot- 
ing stars.  The  shaft  of  Leicester  failed  ;  but  it  fell 
upon  the  Countess  Lettice,  of  Essex,  whose  husband 
was  absent  in  Ireland.  The  criminal  relations  of  Lei- 
cester with  her  became  well  known.  She  was  the 
little  western  flower, 

Before  milk-white;  now  purple  with  Love's  wound. 

Richard   Grant  White1  calls   the  passage  "the  en- 
chanting compliment  to  Queen  Elizabeth." 
Gervinus  continues  : 

Every  new  and  old  investigation  has  long  ago  proved  how 
readily  this  realistic  poet  sought,  in  the  smallest  allusions  as  well 
as  the  greatest  designs,  lively  relations  to  the  times  and  places 
around  him,  how  in  his  freest  tragic  creations  he  loved  to  refer 
to  historical  circumstances,  aye,  founded  even  the  most  foolish 
speeches  and  actions  of  his  clowns,  of  his  grave-diggers  in 
"Hamlet,"  or  his  patrols  in  "Much  Ado  About  Nothing," 
upon  actual  circumstances. 

Lowell  *  says  that  the  leading  characters  of  the 
•'Tempest"  arc  typical,  "and  not  merely  typical,  but 
symbolical."     "Consider  tin-   a    moment    it    ever   the 

1  ■•  Studies  in  Shakespeare,"  p.  15. 

''  "Literary  Essa)  ,"  Vol.  [II.,  pp.  50,60. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  203 

Imagination  has  been  so  embodied  as  in  Prospero,  the 
Fancy  as  in  Ariel,  the  brute  understanding  as  in 
Caliban." 

The  element  of  divers  reference  abounds  in  Milton. 
"  Comus  "  has  a  triple  reference.  First,  there  is  the  plain, 
grammatical  meaning  of  the  fairy  story  itself,  which 
the  poem  relates.  Secondly,  there  is  the  history  by 
which  this  exquisite  masque  was  suggested,  the  actual 
loss  of  the  two  brothers  and  the  sister  in  a  forest. 
Thirdly,  there  is  the  impersonation  of  sensuality  in  the 
character  of  Comus  and  of  virtue  in  that  of  the  lady. 
These  characters  are  types  of  the  two  opposite  prin- 
ciples. The  critics  have  but  one  voice  concerning  this 
typical  character  of  the  work,  and  no  reader  can  over- 
look it. 

Keightly1  finds  in  the  Eve  of  the  "Paradise  Lost" 
references  to  the  first  wife  of  Milton,  who  deserted 
him,  and  afterward  sought  his  pardon  with  tears.  He 
quotes  the  following  passage  : 

Being  as  I  am,  why  didst  not  thou,  the  head, 
Command  me  absolutely  not  to  go, 
Going  into  such  danger,  as  thou  saidst  ? 
Too  facile  then,  thou  didst  not  much  gainsay  ; 
Nay,  didst  permit,  approve,  and  fair  dismiss. 
Hadst  thou  been  firm  and  fixed  in  thy  dissent, 
Neither  had  I  transgressed,  nor  thou  with  me. 

This  is  almost  a  history  of  the  separation  which 
brought  to  Milton  so  much  agitation  and  sorrow.  The 
reconciliation  is  also  described  in  the  same  poem. 
"  Still  later,"  writes  this  celebrated  critic,  "  when  far 
advanced  in  life,  and  after  having  been  in  the  enjoy- 

1  "  Life,  Opinions,  and  Writings  of  John  Milton,"  p.  124. 


204       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

ment  of  the  society  of  two  most  amiable  and  affec- 
tionate wives,  the  pain  caused  him  by  Mary  Powel 
seemed  to  have  recurred  strongly  to  his  mind.  She  is 
evidently  the  Delila  of  his  Samson  Agonistes."  The 
illustrative  passages  are  too  long  to  quote  here. 

Edwin  Paxton  Hood '  finds  in  the  evil  angels  of  the 
"  Paradise  Lost "  allusions  to  the  politicians  whom 
Milton  knew  : 

"Men,  the  very  copy  of  these  lost  spirits,  ranged  round  the 
banner  of  Charles  and  round  the  council-board  ot  Cromwell. 
How  we  identify  Prince  Rupert  with  Moloch,  frowning,  whose 
look  denounced  desperate  revenge  and  battle  dangerous ;  rash, 
precipitate,  reckless  of  his  cause,  mindful  only  of  revenge.  We 
always  think  of  the  stern  and  designing  Strafford  in  the  portrait 
of  Beelzebub."  "  Certainly  the  prime  ministers  of  Satan  and  of 
Charles  answer  to  each  other."  "Those  were  the  times  of 
extraordinary  men  ;  and  Milton  sketched  the  portraits  of  extraor- 
dinary spirits." 

Garnett '  finds  an  instance  in  the  "  Samson  Ago- 
nistes "  : 

Samson's  impersonation  of  the  author  himself  can  escape  no 
one.  Old,  blind,  captive,  helpless,  mocked,  decried,  miserable 
in  the  failure  of  all  his  ideals,  upheld  only  by  faith  and  his  own 
unconquerable  spirit,  Milton  is  the  counterpart  of  his  hero.  Par- 
ticular reference  to  the  circumstances  of  his  life  are  not  wanting  ; 
his  bitter  self-condemnation  for  having  chosen  his  first  wife  in 
the  camp  of  the  enemy,  and  his  surprise  that  near  the  close  of 
an  austere  life  he  should  be  afflicted  by  the  malady  appointed  to 
chastise  intemperance.  But,  as  in  the  Hebrew  prophets  Israel 
denotes  a  person,  sometimes  a  nation,  Samson  seems 
no  less  the  representative  of  the  English  people  in  the  age  of 
Charles  the  Second. 


"  John  Milton,"  p.  iSS.     2"  Life  of  Milton,"  p.  1S4. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  205 

I  turn  to  German  literature,  and  limit  my  examina- 
tion of  it  to  the  poems  of  Schiller  and  Goethe. 

Schiller's  "Robbers,"  says  Diintzer,  "struck  a  note 
of  combat  and  defiance  to  existing  oppression,"  and 
with  this  play,  which  had  on  its  surface  scarcely  a 
political  allusion,  "  he  hoped  to  shake  the  world,  as 
Rousseau  had  shaken  it  with  '  Emile.'  "  That  no  one 
might  fail  to  find  its  deeper  significance,  he  printed  the 
second  edition  of  it  with  "a  vignette  of  a  lion  rampant, 
and  the  motto,  '  in  tyrannos,'  to  give  proof  of  the  re- 
publican tendencies  of  the  work." 

Scherer '  says  of  Wallenstein  :  "  The  realist  is  one- 
sided, and  so  is  the  idealist,  and  only  both  in  conjunc- 
tion furnish  a  complete  picture  of  humanity.  This  is 
Schiller's  teaching  in  Wallenstein."  It  is  needless  to 
say,  however,  that  while  the  tragedy  teaches  this,  it  does 
not  express  it  in  any  line,  from  beginning  to  end,  nor 
even  distantly  hint  it  in  words. 

Schiller's  ballad  of  "The  Diver"  has  a  plain  mean- 
ing, as  a  moving  story,  for  the  great  majority  of  the 
readers  ;  but  it  also  represents,  as  Bulvver  says,  "  the 
contest  of  man's  will  with  physical  nature."  The 
ballad  of  "  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,"  in  addition  to  its 
first  significance  as  a  narrative,  is  "  designed  to  depict 
and  exalt  the  virtue  of  humility."  The  ballad  of 
"  The  Fight  with  the  Dragon,"  Schiller  himself  writes, 
"  depicts  the  old  Christian  chivalry,  half  knightly,  half 
monastic."  In  "The  Maiden  from  Afar"  we  have 
poetry  impersonated.  These  twofold  references  are 
abundant  in  the  more  elaborate  works  of  Schiller ;  and 

1  "  History  of  German  Literature,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  213. 


205       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

I  have  selected  my  examples  from  his  simpler  poems, 
chiefly  narrative,  because  we  do  not  so  much  expect  to 
find  the  element  of  double  reference  in  them. 

Goethe's  historical  drama,  "  Gotz  von  Berlichingen," 
takes  the  reader  back  two  hundred  years  from  the  date 
of  its  appearance  ;  for  it  is  cast  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, when  its  hero  lived,  a  veritable  robber ;  yet 
beneath  the  surface  it  portrays  the  Germany  which 
Goethe  himself  knew.  "  In  this  play,"  says  Scherer, 
"  Goethe  championed  the  cause  of  freedom  against  the 
tyrants  of  Germany,  and  contrasted  the  honest,  patri- 
otic, chivalrous  life  of  its  hero  with  the  corrupt  life  of 
the  courts."  Hence  it  was  stigmatized  as  "revolu- 
tionary "  by  Gervinus  and  others. 

No  one  can  understand  the  poem  of  "  Faust "  with- 
out some  study  of  the  double,  and  often  manifold 
meanings  which  are  found  in  many  of  its  passages. 
Thus  Bayard  Taylor1  says  of  the  "Carnival  Mas- 
querade "  :  "  Goethe  himself  has  added  not  a  little  to 
the  confusion  [of  the  interpreters]  by  introducing 
now  and  then  a  double,  possibly  even  a  triple  sym- 
bolism ;  therefore,  although  we  may  feel  tolerably 
secure  in  regard  to  the  elements  which  he  represents, 
so  many  additional  meanings  are  suggested  that  we 
walk  the  labyrinth  with  a  continual  suspicion  of  our 
path." 

Of  the  "Second  Part  "  as  a  whole  he  writes:  "There 
are  circles  within  circles,  forms  which  beckon  and  then 
disappear;  and  when  we  seem  to  have  reached  the 
bottom  of   the  author's  meaning,  we  suspect  that  there 

1  '  Faust,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  442. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  207 

is  still  something  beyond."  He  pronounces  "the  epi- 
sode of  Plutus  and  the  Boy  Charioteer  a  double  alle- 
gory." The  classical  Walpurgis-Night,  he  tells  us, 
"has  a  double  intention,"  that  "of  conducting  Faust 
to  a  higher  plane  of  life  through  the  awakening  and 
developing  of  the  sense  of  beauty,"  and  that  "of 
bringing  together  the  classic  and  romantic  elements  in 
literature  and  art  in  order  to  reconcile  them  in  a  region 
lofty  enough  to  abolish  all  fashions  of  race  and  time." 

Carlyle  says  of  the  "  Helena,"  in  the  "  Second  Part 
of  Faust,"  that  the  "  outward  meaning  seems  unsatis- 
factory enough,  were  it  not  that  ever  and  anon  we  are 
reminded  of  a  cunning  manifold  meaning  which  lies 
hidden  under  it  ;  and  incited  by  capricious  beckonings 
to  evolve  this  more  and  more  completely  from  its 
quaint  concealment." 

The  following,  from  Scherer,1  may  serve  further  to 
illustrate  the  criticisms  by  Taylor  and  Carlyle  just 
quoted  : 

"  In  the  'Second  Part  of  Faust '  typical  realism  predominates 
exclusively,  only  that  the  realism  disappears  more  and  more,  and 
the  typical  element  alone  remains  along  with  a  wealth  of  alle- 
gory and  personification.  The  emperor's  court  contains  noth- 
ing but  typical  characters."  "  There  is,  however,  a  good  deal 
of  spurious  symbolism  in  the  '  Second  Part '  which  Goethe  should 
not  have  allowed  himself  ;  I  refer  to  utterances  which  would  be 
appropriate  if  they  came  from  Goethe's  own  lips,  but  which  are 
little  consonant  with  the  characters  in  whose  mouths  he  puts 
them,  and  in  which  he  either  remains  obscure,  or  offends  if  his 
meaning  is  understood.  The  latter  is  the  case  with  the  char- 
acter of  Euphorion,  who  is  not  only  Faust's  and  Helena's  son, 
but  is  also  meant  as  an  impersonation  of  Lord  Byron." 

1  "  Hist.  German  Literature,"  p.  329. 


20S       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Goethe  himself  has  told  us  that  "  in  Euphorion 
poesy  is  personified."  Hence,  many  passages  of  Faust 
relating  to  Euphorion  might  be  quoted  to  exhibit 
Goethe's  conception  of  Lord  Byron ;  and  the  same 
passages  might  be  quoted  with  equal  propriety  to  ex- 
hibit his  conception  of  poetry. 

The  element  of  clivers  reference  abounds  also  in 
French  literature.  I  mention,  for  example,  the  "  Pan- 
tagruel  "  and  "Gargantua"  of  Rabelais,  which  are 
"  f ull  of  satirical  allegories  and  half-allegories,"  and 
require  the  most  varied  interpretations.  I  mention 
the  "Apology  of  Herodotus"  of  Henri  Estienne  who, 
"in  the  guise  of  a  serious  defense  of  Herodotus  from 
the  charges  of  untrustworthiness  and  invention  fre- 
quently brought  against  him,  indulges  in  an  elaborate 
indictment  of  his  own  and  recent  times,  especially 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy."  I  mention  the 
"  Fables  "  of  La  Fontaine,  which,  "  as  mere  narratives, 
are  charming,"  and  in  which  there  is  "  an  undercurrent 
of  sly,  good-humored,  satirical  meaning."  I  mention 
Moliere,  whose  "  Malade  Imaginaire  "  has  for  its  "main 
theme  the  absurdity  of  the  current  practice  of  medi- 
cine," and  in  which,  "as  usual,  the  genius  of  the  writer 
veils  the  fact  of  the  drama  being  a  drama  with  a  pur- 
pose." I  mention  the  "Telemaque  "  of  Fenelon,  for 
which  the  author  was  banished  from  court  because, 
under  the  disguise  of  an  ancient  story,  the  king  and 
his  ministers  recognized  a  satire  against  the  principles 
of  their  government.  I  mention  the  dramas  of  Vol- 
taire, the  greatest  of  which  are  concerned  with  the 
characters  of  ancient  history,  yet  which  "owed  their 
popularity  chiefly  to  the  adroit    manner  in  which,  with- 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  20O, 

out  going  too  far,  the  author  made  them  opportunities 
for  insinuating  the  popular  opinions  of  the  time,"  so 
that  many  parts  of  them  could  be  quoted  as  the  views 
of  the  author  concerning  the  circumstances  of  CEdi- 
pus,  of  Caesar,  and  of  Mohammed,  and  also  concerning 
the  circumstances  immediately  about  him. 

That  there  are  manifold  references  in  the  myths  of 
Greece  beyond  the  plain  grammatical  meaning  found 
upon  the  surface,  is  perceived  at  once  by  all  who  read 
them  with  any  attention.  Perhaps  the  best  popular 
guide  through  the  mazy  windings  of  their  teaching  is 
Ruskin,  in  his  "  Queen  of  the  Air,"  '  where  he  pre- 
sents to  us  the  conclusions  of  all  their  chief  modern 
students,  suffused  with  the  light  of  his  own  bright 
genius.  He  reduces  the  manifold  references  of  this 
mythology  to  four  distinct  parts.  First,  there  is  the 
story  itself.  Then  there  is  "  the  root,  in  physical  ex- 
istence, sun,  or  sky,  or  cloud,  or  sea ;  then  the  personal 
incarnation  of  that,  becoming  a  trusted  and  companion- 
able deity,  with  whom  you  may  walk  hand  in  hand  as  a 
child  with  its  mother  or  sister ;  and  lastly,  the  moral 
significance  of  the  image,  which  is  in  all  the  great 
myths  eternally  and  beneficently  true."  To  the  ordi- 
nary hearer  the  myth  was  history  without  a  hidden  sci- 
ence or  a  veiled  morality.  The  "  story  of  Hercules 
and  the  Hydra  was,  to  the  general  Greek  mind,  in  its 
best  days,  a  tale  about  a  real  hero  and  a  real  monster. 
Not  one  in  a  thousand  knew  anything  of  the  way  in 
which  the  story  had  arisen."  "  Few  persons  have 
traced  any  moral  or  symbolical  meaning  in  the  story." 

1  Pp-  3-7- 


2IO       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

"  But  for  all  that,  there  was  a  certain  undercurrent  of 
consciousness  in  nil  minds  that  the  figures  meant  more 
than  they  at  first  showed  ;  and,  according  to  each  one's 
faculties  of  sentiment,  he  judged  and  read  them." 
The  Greek  poets  perceived  many  of  these  deeper 
thoughts  of  their  mythology,  and  presented  them  in 
their  works,  though  in  a  veiled  form.  "Thus  Pindar 
says  of  himself,  '  There  is  many  an  arrow  in  my  quiver 
full  of  speech  to  the  wise,  but,  for  the  many,  they  need 
interpreters.'  " 

Karl  Ottfried  Muller,1  the  most  distinguished  of  the 
students  of  Greek  mythology,  writes  as  follows  : 

The  Grecian  worship  of  nature  places  one  deity  at  the  head 
of  the  entire  system,  the  god  of  heaven  and  light,  which  the 
name  Zeus  signifies.  With  this  god  of  the  heavens,  who  dwells 
in  the  pure  expanse  of  ether,  is  associated  the  goddess  of  the 
earth,  called  variously  Hera,  Demeter,  Dione.  The  marriage 
of  Zeus  with  this  goddess,  which  signified  the  union  of  heaven 
and  earth  in  the  fertilizing  rains,  was  a  sacred  solemnity  in  the 
worship  of  these  deities.  The  element  of  water  was  represented 
by  Poseidon,  and  of  fire  by  Hephaestus. 

Since  the  Greek  mythology  is  thus  veined  with  mul- 
tiple references,  we  should  expect  to  find  some  con- 
sciousness of  this  feature  in  Hesiod,  whose  "  The- 
ogony "  was  held  in  reverence  as  a  revelation.  He 
shows  in  this  poem  that  he  is  aware  of  the  double 
reference  of  the  myths  he  relates,  as  in  lines  224  ami 
the  following,  where  we  are  told  that 

Night  gave  birth  to  Deceit  and  Desire, 
and  that 

Discord  brought  fi>rth  Battle  and  Slaughter. 

1  "History  of  Greek  Literature."  Translated  by  George  Cornwall 
Lewis,  [i.  14. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  211 

In  such  places  the  story  deals  in  impersonations  of 
virtues  and  vices,  and  attempts  to  set  forth  a  philoso- 
phy, as  well  as  a  narrative  of  what  the  great  mass  of 
its  readers  regarded  as  real  events. 

We  should  expect  to  find  the  same  consciousness  in 
Homer,  who  deals  so  largely  with  the  gods  and  their 
interference  in  the  affairs  of  men.  Nor  are  we  disap- 
pointed. "Few  passages  in  the 'Iliad,'"  says  Keight- 
ley,1  "  are  more  celebrated  than  the  following  picture 
of  the  love-union  of  Zeus  and  Hera  on  the  summit  of 
Ida:2 

He  said;  and  in  his  arms  Kronion  seized 

His  spouse.     Beneath  them  bounteous  earth  sent  up 

Fresh-growing  grass;  there  dewy  lotus  rose, 

Crocus  and  hyacinth,  both  thick  and  soft, 

Which  raised  them  from  the  ground.     On  this  they  lay, 

And  o'er  them  spread  a  golden  cloud  and  fair, 

And  glittering  drops  of  dew  fell  all  around. 

This  is,  we  think,  justly  regarded  as  a  sportive 
adaptation  by  the  epic  poet  of  an  ancient  physical 
myth  of  the  union  of  Zeus  and  Hera — heaven  and 
earth,  as  we  shall  presently  show — in  springtime  pro- 
ducing vegetation."  "  The  physical  union  of  earth  and 
heaven  is,  we  think,  plainly  discernible  in  the  beauti- 
ful passage  of  Homer  above  noticed  It  is  given  with- 
out any  disguise  by  Euripides,  in  whose  time  the  dei- 
ties of  the  popular  creed  were  generally  regarded  as 
personifications  of  physical  objects  and  powers  ;  and 
he  has  been  imitated  by  the  Latin  Epicurean  poets, 
Lucretius  and  Virgil." 
Similarly  Blackie  says  :3 

1  "  Mythology,"  pp.  9S,  103.     2  "  Iliad,"  XIV.,  364. 
3  "  Homer  and  the  Iliad,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  329. 


212       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

It  is  true,  and  modern  mythological  science  has  proved  it  in 
the  most  satisfactory  way,  that  Apollo  means  the  sun,  and  that 
all  the  heathen  mythology  was  originally  a  personification  of  the 
features  and  elements  of  the  physical  world  ;  it  is  true  also  that 
there  is  a  manifest  moral  significance  in  some  of  the  Homeric 
deities;  Pallas,  for  instance,  as  contrasted  with  Mars,  repre- 
senting vigorous  and  wise  energy,  as  opposed  to  the  mere  wild 
tiger-like  fury  of  passionate  attack.  She,  therefore,  with  mani- 
fest propriety,  directs  all  the  actions  of  the  wise  Ulysses,  and 
checks  the  hand  of  the  fierce  Pelidan  when  he  is  being  tempted 
to  perpetrate  a  deed  of  rashness,  for  which  no  feats  of  valor, 
however  brilliant,  could  have  atoned. 

If  we  turn  from  Homer  to  the  later  poets  of  Greece, 
we  observe  the  same  things.     Thus  Curtius  '  writes  : 

The  Hellenes  were  accustomed  to  regard  their  poets  as  their 
teachers,  nor  could  any  poet  find  favor  who  deemed  his  only 
qualification  to  consist  in  talent,  fancy,  and  artistic  skill.  lie- 
sides  these  qualifications  there  were  required  a  thorough  inner 
culture  of  heart  and  intellect,  a  deep  and  comprehensive  knowl- 
edge of  tradition,  and  a  clear  insight  into  things  human  and 
divine. 

yEschylus,  "looking  both  into  the  future  and  into 
the  past,  like  a  prophet  interprets  the  course  of  his- 
tory." Because  of  this  lofty  prophetic  office  of  the 
poets,  we  are  sometimes  to  find  in  their  writings  a 
meaning  which  does  not  lie  on  the  surface.  Recogniz- 
ing this  high  calling  of  the  Greek  poet,  the  Apostle 
Paul  calls  him  a  prophet:  "a  prophet  of  their  own 
hath  said";  this  was  strictly  the  Greek  thought  con- 
cerning the  Greek  poet. 

Of  yEschylus,  Curtius  says: 

Mankind,  .is   iEschylus   depicted   it   in   the  Titan   "Prome- 
i  ■•  History  ol  <  ireece,"  Vol.  1 1.,  p.  579- 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  213 

theus  " — enduring  in  the  midst  of  tribulation,  proud  in  its  self- 
consciousness,  unwearied  in  inventive  thought,  but  at  the  same 
time  prone  to  rashness  and  to  vain-glorious  arrogance — is  no 
other  than  the  generation  of  ^Eschylus'  own  contemporaries, 
ever  striving  restlessly  onward. 

Curtius  continues  thus  : 

It  was  impossible  to  describe  the  battle  of  Plataeainthe  "  Glau- 
cus  "  without  proclaiming  the  glory  of  Aristides.  Nor  was  there 
in  the  tragedies  on  mythical  subjects  any  lack  of  passages  which 
permitted,  and  even  demanded,  a  direct  application  to  the  pres- 
ent. Such  allusions  were  not  the  result  of  impure  and  frosty 
secondary  designs  obscuring  the  pure  effect  of  the  poetry,  but 
they  were  necessary  to  such  a  man  as  /Eschylus.  .  .  The  public, 
on  the  other  hand,  which  in  the  theatre  no  less  than  in  the  as- 
sembly, was  conscious  of  its  character  as  a  civic  body,  rapidly 
and  spontaneously  understood  all  allusions  which  might  be 
interpreted  to  refer  to  public  affairs  and  personages;  and  when 
/Eschylus'  words  were  spoken  of  Amphiaraus,  the  eyes  of  all 
men  turned  to  Aristides,  whose  wish  was  "  not  to  seem,  but  to 
be  just,"  and  who  "from  the  far  depths  of  his  loyal  heart  sent 
forth  the  fruits  of  counsel  proved  and  true." 

We  find  the  same  view  in  the  great  work  of  Karl  Ott- 
fried  Miiller  on  "  The  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece."  1 

In  the  "Seven  against  Thebes,"  the  description  of  the  up- 
right Amphiaraus,  who  wished,  not  to  seem,  but  to  be  the  best — 
the  wise  general  from  whose  mind,  as  from  the  deep  furrows  of 
a  well-plowed  field,  noble  counsels  proceed — was  universally 
applied  by  the  Athenian  people  to  Aristides,  and  was  doubtless 
intended  by  ^schylus  for  him.  Then  the  complaint  of  Eteo- 
cles,  that  this  just  and  temperate  man,  associated  with  impetu- 
ous companions,  must  share  their  ruin,  expresses  the  disappro- 
bation felt  by  yEschylus  of  the  other  leaders  of  the  Greeks  and 
Athenians;  among  the  rest,  of  Themistocles,  who  at  that  time 
had  probably  gone  into  exile. 

1  Vol.  I.,  p.  430. 


214       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Plumptre1  writes  thus  of  the  strophe  of  the  "Aga- 
memnon," beginning  in  his  translation  with  the  words, 

Yes,  one  may  say,  'tis  Zeus  whose  blow  they  feel : 

Dramatically,  the  words  refer  to  the  practical  impiety  of  evil- 
doers like  Paris,  with  perhaps  a  half-latent  allusion  to  that  of 
Clytemnestra.  But  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  for  the  Athe- 
nian audience  it  would  have  a  more  special  significance  as  a 
protest  against  the  growing  skepticism,  what  in  a  later  time 
would  have  been  called  the  Epicureanism,  of  the  age  of  Pericles. 
It  is  the  assertion  of  the  belief  of  yEschylus  in  the  moral  govern- 
ment of  the  world. 

This  critic  writes  again  of  a  particular  part  of  the 
same  strophe  : 

The  chorus  sees  in  the  overthrow  of  Troy  an  instance  of 
righteous  retribution.  The  audience  were  perhaps  intended  to 
think  also  of  the  punishment  which  had  fallen  on  the  Persians 
for  the  sacrilegious  acts  of  their  fathers. 

In  the   "Agamemnon"   of    yEschylus,   the  famous 
chorus  beginning  in  Plumptre's  translation  : 
O  Zeus,  whate'er  he  be, 

has  a  double  reference.  Plumptre2  says  of  it,  "As  a 
part  of  the  drama  the  whole  passage  that  follows  is  an 
assertion  by  the  chorus  that  in  this  their  trouble  they 
will  turn  to  no  other  god,  invoke  no  other  name.  But 
it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  they  have  a  meaning 
beyond  this,  and  are  the  utterance  by  the  poet  of  his 
own  theology."  "  Like  the  voice  which  came  to  Epi- 
menides,  as  he  was  building  a  sanctuary  to  the  Muses, 
bidding   him   dedicate  it   not   to  them,  but   to   Zeus,  it 

>  "The  Tragedies  of  .Eschylus,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  25,  notes  1  and  2. 
5   [bid,  p.  13,  note  3. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  215 

represents  a  faint  approximation  to  a  truer,  more  mono- 
theistic creed  than  that  of  the  popular  mythology." 
The  passage  might  be  quoted  truthfully  in  either  sense. 
Karl  Ottfried  Miiller  1  says  of  the  "  Eumenides  "  of 
yEschylus  : 

Of  all  the  ancient  tragedies  extant,  there  is  none  in  which  the 
mythic  and  the  political,  the  development  of  an  occurrence  in 
the  Homeric  age  and  the  reference  to  circumstances  and  events 
in  contemporary  public  life,  are  so  intimately  blended.  Not 
only  is  the  mythological  texture  of  the  play  pervaded  by  politi- 
cal allusions,  as  it  were  fine  threads  discernible  only  by  the 
more  scrutinizing  eye,  but  the  whole  treatment  of  the  myth 
withal  so  turns  upon  political  institutions  deemed  of  paramount 
importance  in  those  times,  that  by  yielding  one's  self  up  to  the 
impressions  of  the  poem,  one  may  for  a  while  fancy  the  populace 
assembled  in  the  theatre  to  be  an  ecclesia  convened  for  the  pur- 
pose of  deliberating  on  matters  of  State  and  law.  The  speech 
in  which  Minerva  inaugurates  the  council  of  Areopagus  is,  at 
the  same  time,  a  popular  harangue  clearly  pervaded  by  the 
design  of  teaching  the  people  that  they  should  leave  the  Areop- 
agus in  possession  of  its  ancient  well-founded  privileges,  and 
warning  them  against  innovations  which  must  inevitably  issue 
in  unbridled  democracy. 

Hence,  there  are  many  lines  in  this  play  which 
might  have  been  quoted  by  its  Greek  hearers  as  re- 
ferring both  to  the  age  of  myths  and  to  their  own 
times. 

Lest  it  be  said  that  such  opinions  are  the  outgrowth 
of  the  mystic  temperament  of  these  German  writers, 
rather  than  of  the  poems  themselves,  let  us  listen  to 
Grote, 2  the  sober  and  unimaginative  Englishman.  He 
is  speaking  of  ^Eschylus  and  Sophocles  when  he  says  : 

1  "The  Eumenides  of  /Eschylus,"  p.  107. 

2  "  History  of  Greece,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  513. 


2l6       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  effect  of  Athenian  political  discussion  and  democratical 
feeling  is  visible  in  both  these  dramatists;  the  idea  of  rights  and 
legitimate  privileges  as  opposed  to  usurping  force,  is  applied  by 
vEschylus  even  to  the  society  of  the  gods  ;  the  Eumenides  accuse 
Apollo  of  having,  with  the  insolence  of  youthful  ambition,  "rid- 
den down  "  their  old  prerogatives. 

It  is  commonly  understood  that  /Eschylus  disapproved  of  the 
march  of  democracy  at  Athens  during  his  later  years,  and  that 
the  "Eumenides"  is  intended  as  an  indirect  manifestation  in 
favor  of  the  senate  of  Areopagus  ;  without  inquiring  at  present 
whether  such  a  special  purpose  can  be  distinctly  made  out,  we  may 
plainly  see  that  the  poet  introduces,  into  the  relations  of  the 
gods  with  each  other,  a  feeling  of  political  justice,  arising  out  of 
the  times  in  which  he  lived  and  the  debates  of  which  he  was  a 
witness. 

Thus,  while  to  us  these  tragedies  are  merely  the 
legends  of  the  gods  related  in  the  form  of  dramas,  to 
their  authors  and  their  first  hearers  they  were  full  of 
secondary  references  to  the  great  political  questions 
which  agitated  the  minds  of  the  citizens. 

No  critic  overlooks  the  element  of  double  reference 
in  Sophocles,  though  some  make  it  more  prominent 
than  others.  Schneidewin,1  who  reduces  it  to  its  least 
expression,  recognizes  it  freely.  Others  find  in  whole 
plays,  founded  on  the  ancient  myths,  nothing  but  refer- 
ences to  the  events  of  the  day.  Schneidewin  blames 
them  for  holding  that  "  Philoktetes,"  in  the  tragedy 
named  for  him,  "is  the  home-returning  Alcibiades ; 
Ulysses,  the  disingenuous  Peisander  ;  Nestor,  the  guide 
of  Antiphnn,  the  overthrown  oligarch  ;  Antilochus,  the 
murdered  Phrynichus ;  and  Thersites,  Kleophon,  the 
demagogue."      It   may  be  doubted   how  far   we   are  to 

i  "Sophokles."     Erklart  von  F.  W.  Schneidewin.     Berlin,  i  S55. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  217 

follow  such  interpreters.  Indeed  we  need  not  follow 
them  at  all  if  the  way  seem  too  much  perplexed ;  it  is 
sufficient  to  take  Schneidewin  himself,  the  most  timid 
and  conservative  student  of  Sophocles,  as  our  authority ; 
for  he  will  show  us  many  passages  which  point  clearly 
to  the  men  and  the  events  immediately  affecting  the 
dramatist  and  the  people  who  listened  to  his  plays, 
though  also  appropriate  to  the  mythical  characters  who 
utter  them.  He  does  not  deny  the  reference  of  the 
Philoctetes  to  Alcibiades  ;  but,  granting  this,  pronounces 
it  a  work  of  art  so  complete  that  the  commentator  to- 
day need  not  direct  his  attention  to  any  relations  except 
those  of  the  myth,  and  thus  "disturb  his  pure  enjoy- 
ment of  the  artistic  creation  by  turning  aside  to  other 
and  unfruitful  things."  He  finds,  with  other  critics, 
a  reference  to  the  plague  at  Athens  in  the  "  CEdipus 
the  King,"  and  he  allows  several  references  to  passing 
events  in  the  "CEdipus  at  Colonos." 

The  double  reference  found  in  yEschylus  and  Sopho- 
cles, is  also  found  in  Euripides :  his  "  later  pieces  are 
particularly  rich  1  in  allusions  to  the  events  of  the  day, 
and  the  relative  positions  of  the  parties  which  were 
formed  in  the  Greek  States,  and  calculated  in  many 
ways  to  flatter  the  patriotic  vanity  of  the  Athenians." 
Yet  these  pieces,  like  the  earlier,  were  reproductions 
in  dramatic  form  of  the  ancient  legends,  and  the  mani- 
fest allusions  to  the  affairs  of  the  day  were  made  by 
the  characters  of  the  popular  mythology  speaking  of 
their  own  situations  and  concerns.  "  He  avails  him- 
self of  the  old  stories  in  order  to  produce  situations  in 


Ottfried  Miiller,  "  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  487. 
T 


2l8       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

which  he  may  exhibit  the  men  of  his  own  time  influ- 
enced by  mental  excitement  and  passionate  emotion." 
He  has  a  place  in  these  dialogues  of  mythological 
characters  "  even  for  indirect  poetical  criticisms,  which 
he  turns  against  his  predecessors,  specially  against 
yEschylus.  There  are  distinct  passages  in  the  «  Electra ' 
and  the  '  Phoenician  Women,'  which  every  one  at  Athens 
must  have  understood  as  objecting,  the  former  to  the 
recognition  scenes  in  the  « Choephorae,'  the  latter  to  the 
descriptions  of  the  besieging  warriors  before  the  de- 
cision of  the  battle,  as  stiff  and  unnatural."  He  does 
not  carry  his  habit  of  secondary  reference,  however,  so 
far  as  some  others  :  "  He  does  not,  like  /Eschylus,  con- 
sider the  mythical  events  in  any  real  connection  with 
the  historical,  and  treat  the  legends  as  the  foundation, 
type,  and  prophecy  of  the  time  being." 

"We  have  reason  to  suppose,"  says  Manly,'  "that 
the  moral  which  the  poet  expressed  through  the  mouth 
of  his  dramatic  characters  did  not  always  please  the 
sound  judgment  of  the  public.  But  the  people  could 
not  well  distinguish  whether  it  corresponded  merely  to 
the  character  speaking  at  the  time,  or  was  intended  to 
convey  the  views  of  the  author  himself."  Sandys,  in 
his  fine  edition  of  the  "Bacchanals,"  says  of  this 
tragedy:  " On  a  superficial  view  it  might  appear  that 
the  object  of  the  play  is  nothing  more  than  the  glorifi- 
cation of  the  god  whose  worship  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Gr<.<  k 
drama  ;  but  a  more  careful  examination  shows  that  there 
arc  also   indications  ol    a  less  obvious    kind,  pointing    to 

1  ■•  1  uripidea'  Werke,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  1 8. 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  219 

an  ulterior  purpose."  Miiller,  the  greatest  critic  of 
Greek  literature,  states  thus  the  secondary  object:1 
"  This  tragedy  furnishes  us  with  remarkable  conclu- 
sions in  regard  to  the  religious  opinions  of  Euripides 
at  the  close  of  his  life.  In  this  play  he  appears,  as  it 
were,  converted  into  a  positive  believer,  or,  in  other 
words,  convinced  that  religion  should  not  be  exposed 
to  the  subtleties  of  reasoning ;  that  the  understanding 
of  man  cannot  subvert  ancestral  traditions  which  are 
as  old  as  time,  and  that  it  is  but  a  poor  philosophy 
which  attacks  religion."  Paley2  tells  us  that  the 
"  Children  of  Hercules,"  though  rehearsing  in  dramatic 
form  only  a  time-worn  legend,  "  has  a  political  object, 
that  of  attacking  Argos  for  entering  into  a  treaty  with 
Sparta  and  joining  the  war  against  Athens."  The 
object  of  the  "Suppliant  Women"  was  "to  upbraid 
the  Argives  with  ingratitude  for  invading  the  Attic 
soil."  All  the  plays  of  Euripides  are  cast  in  the  same 
legendary  ages  of  the  past ;  but  all  of  them  are  in- 
tended to  speak  to  the  people  contemporary  with  the 
author  concerning  their  own  civil  and  religious  in- 
terests. 

In  Pindar  we  have  the  most  varied  use  of  secondary 
reference,  and  it  appears  in  almost  all  his  odes.  "He 
himself  remarks,"  says  Miiller,  "  that  intelligence 
and  reflection  are  required  to  discover  the  hidden 
meaning  of  his  mythical  episodes."  In  certain  cases 
"  events  of  the  heroic  age  are  described  which  re- 
semble the  events  of  the  victor's  life,  or  which  contain 
lessons  or  admonitions  for  him  to  reflect  upon.     Thus 

1  "  History  of  Greek  Literature,"  p.  225. 

2  "Euripides,  with  an  English  Commentary." 


220       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

two  mythical  personages  may  be  introduced,  of  whom 
one  may  typify  him  in  his  praiseworthy,  the  other  in 
his  blamable  acts  ;  so  that  the  one  example  may  serve 
to  deter,  the  other  to  encourage."  Pindar  himself 
does  not  usually  draw  these  lessons  for  his  readers. 
He  sings  the  story ;  the  hearers  know  that  it  has  some 
reference  to  contemporary  characters  and  events  ;  and 
they  are  left  to  find  the  application.  "  Indeed,  it  may 
be  observed  generally  of  those  Greek  writers  who 
aimed  at  the  production  of  works  of  art,  whether  in 
prose  or  in  poetry,  that  they  often  conceal  their  real 
purpose,  and  affect  to  leave  in  vague  uncertainty  that 
which  had  been  composed  studiously  and  on  a  precon- 
ceived plan." 

Divers  reference  abounds  also  in  Latin  literature. 
Thus  Bahr  J  says  of  the  "  Bucolics  "  of  Virgil : 

There  are  manifold  references  to  political  affairs  and  to  events 
in  his  own  life  which,  as  also  the  praise  of  lofty  and  influential 
persons,  are  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  shepherds  who  appear 
in  the  poems.  These  display  a  higher  grade  of  culture,  and 
appear,  therefore,  not  as  real  shepherds,  but  as  allegorical  per- 
sonages, so  that  this  shepherd-world  has  no  true  individual  life, 
but  only  one  of  an  artistic  kind,  which  is  of  service  to  the  alle- 
gory. The  Eclogue  here  becomes,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  means 
of  presenting,  under  rural  colors,  the  ideas  of  a  world  wholly 
different,  that  of  literature  or  politics,  or  the  personal  relations 
of  the  poet  to  powerful  men  whose  favor  he  wished  to  gain. 

Thus   Tityrus,  in  the  first    Eclogue,  is  the   father  of 
Virgil,  and  Daphnis,  in  the  fifth,  is  Julius  Caesar. 
( Iruttwell !  tells  us  that  the  "  /Eneid  "  is  veined  with 
nd   references.     "Some  have  regarded   it    us  the 


hte  der  Rdmischen  Literatur,"  Vol,  1.,  p.  639. 

Roman  Literature,"  p.  268. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  221 

sequel  and  counterpart  of  the  '  Iliad,'  in  which  Troy 
triumphs  over  her  ancient  foe  and  Greece  acknowl- 
edges the  divine  Nemesis.  That  this  conception  was 
present  to  the  poet  is  clear  from  many  passages  in 
which  he  reminds  Greece  that  she  is  under  Rome's 
dominion,  and  contrasts  the  heroes  or  achievements  of 
the  two  nations."  Again:  "Many  critics  have  lent 
their  support  to  the  view  that  the  '  yEneid '  cele- 
brates the  triumph  of  law  and  civilization  over  the 
savage  instincts  of  man  ;  and  that  because  Rome  had 
proved  the  most  complete  civilizing  power,  therefore  it 
is  to  her  greatness  that  everything  in  the  poem  con- 
spires. This  view,"  Cruttwell  continues,  "  seems  some- 
what too  philosophical  to  have  been  by  itself  his  ani- 
mating principle."     He  then  adds  : 

"We  should  supplement  this  view  by  another  held  by  Macro- 
bius  and  many  Latin  critics,  and  of  which  Mr.  Nettleship,  in  a 
recent  admirable  pamphlet,  recognizes  the  justice,  namely,  that 
the  '  ^Lneid '  was  written  with  a  religious  object,  and  must  be 
regarded  mainly  as  a  religious  poem.  Its  burning  patriotism 
glows  with  a  religious  light.  Its  hero  is  'religious,'  not  'beau- 
tiful,' or  'brave  '  At  the  sacrifice  even  of  poetical  effect  his 
religious  dependence  on  the  gods  is  brought  into  prominence. 
The  action  of  the  whole  poem  hinges  on  the  divine  will." 
"The  glory  of  ^neas  is  to  have  brought  with  him  the  Trojan 
gods  and,  through  perils  of  every  kind,  to  have  scrupulously 
preserved  their  worship. "  "  The  '  ^neid  '  is  literally  filled  with 
memorials  of  the  old  religion."  "This,  then,  being  the  lofty 
origin,  the  immemorial  antiquity  of  the  national  faith,  the  moral 
is  easily  drawn,  that  Rome  must  never  cease  to  observe  it.  The 
rites  to  import  which  into  the  favored  land  cost  heaven  itself  so 
fierce  a  struggle,  which  have  raised  that  land  to  the  head  of  all 
the  earth,  must  not.be  neglected,  now  that  their  promise  has 
been  fulfilled." 


223       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

Thus  the  best  criticism  of  the  "y£neid,"  represented 
by  Cruttwell,  finds  in  it  not  only  a  second  reference, 
but  also  a  third  and  a  fourth.  Many  critics,  according 
to  Cruttwell,  add  yet  another,  and  see  in  /Eneas  "  a 
type  of  the  emperor,  whose  calm,  calculating  courage 
was  equaled  by  his  piety  to  the  gods  and  his  care  for 
public  morals." 

IV.  Hozv  Double  Reference  is  Indicated. 

I.   By  means  of  overflow  of  language. 

Sometimes  the  writer  indicates  his  secondary  refer- 
ence by  means  of  what  may  be  called  an  overflow  of 
language.  He  is  writing  of  that  which  immediately 
concerns  him,  but  he  has  in  mind  also  another  refer- 
ence, and,  consciously  or  unconsciously,  his  words  swell 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  first,  and  fill  the  channel  of 
the  second.  Thus,  in  the  following  passage  from  the 
"  Idyls  of  the  King,"  Tennyson  pictures  the  ocean  on 
which  Arthur  passed  away  from  human  sight,  and  in 
the  last  line  shows  that  it  is  the  ocean  of  time,  the 
tide  of  history  : 

Only  the  wan  wave 
Brake  in  among  dead  faces,  to  and  fro 
Swaying  the  helpless  hands,  and  up  and  down 
Tumbling  the  hollow  helmets  of  the  fallen, 
And  shivered  brands  that  once  had  fought  with  Rome, 
And  rolling  far  along  the  gloomy  shores 
The  voice  of  days  of  old  and  days  to  be. 

As  another  illustration  of  double  reference  by  means 
of  overflow  of  language,  I  adduce  the  second  stanza 
of  the  little  poem  entitled  "  The  Tide-River,"  by  Kings- 
ley      The   subject    is   the   river,  but   language   is   used 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  223 

which  is   inapplicable  to  any  river,  and  which  shows 
that  a  human  life  is  also  meant : 

Dank  and  foul,  dank  and  foul, 

By  the  smoky  town  in  its  smoky  cowl, 

Foul  and  dank,  foul  and  dank, 

By  wharf  and  sewer  and  slimy  bank  ; 

Darker  and  darker  the  farther  I  go  ; 

Baser  and  baser  the  richer  I  grow  ; 

Who  dare  sport  with  the  sin-defiled  ? 

Shrink  from  me,  turn  from  me,  mother  and  child. 

The  river  flows  by  "  wharf  and  sewer  and  slimy 
bank,"  but  only  a  human  being  can  become  "baser  the 
richer  he  grows,"  and  so  "sin-defiled"  that  the  mother 
and  child  must  shrink  away  from  him. 

I  bring  forward  another  illustration  from  the  "  Di- 
vine Comedy."  Dante  regards  Beatrice  as  a  real  per- 
son whenever  he  mentions  her.  But  he  also  regards 
her  as  an  impersonation  of  heavenly  wisdom.  In 
certain  passages  he  says  what  cannot  be  explained 
upon  the  supposition  that  he  refers  to  her  as  a  mere 
person,  and  what  can  be  explained  only  by  bearing  in 
mind  the  secondary  reference.  Take  the  following  from 
Longfellow's  translation  of  the  "  Purgatorio,"  XXX., 
124-145,  in  which  Beatrice  in  glory  upbraids  Dante: 

As  soon  as  ever  of  my  second  age 
I  was  upon  the  threshold,  and  changed  life, 
Himself  from  me  he  took  and  gave  to  others. 
When  from  the  flesh  to  spirit  I  ascended, 
And  beauty  and  virtue  were  in  me  increased, 
I  was  to  him  less  dear  and  less  delightful  ; 
And  into  ways  untrue  he  turned  his  steps, 
Pursuing  the  false  images  of  good, 
That  never  any  promises  fulfill ; 


224       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Nor  prayer  for  inspiration  me  availed, 

By  means  of  which  in  dreams  and  otherwise 

I  called  him  back  ;  so  little  did  he  heed  them, 

So  low  he  fell,  that  all  appliances 

For  his  salvation  were  already  short, 

Save  showing  him  the  people  of  perdition. 

For  this  I  visited  the  gates  of  death, 

And  unto  him  who  so  far  up  has  led  him, 

My  intercessions  were  with  weeping  borne. 

God's  lofty  fiat  would  be  violated, 

If  Lethe  should  be  passed,  and  if  such  viands 

Should  tasted  be,  withouten  any  scot 

Of  penitence,  that  gushes  forth  in  tears. 

This  is  absurd,  if  Beatrice  is  only  a  person  ;  for  it 
was  not  wrong  for  Dante  to  turn  to  others  after  her 
death,  and  the  act  needed  no  vision  of  hell  or  peni- 
tence. The  lines  possess  a  meaning  only  when  we 
bear  in  mind  the  statement  of  Dante  himself,  in  his 
"  Convito,"  that  Beatrice  represents  heavenly  wisdom. 
To  forsake  that  for  "  false  images  of  good  "  is  to  sin, 
to  deserve  punishment,  and  to  need  redemption. 

The  authors  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  we  shall  see 
a  little  later,  have  frequently  employed  an  overflow  of 
language  to  indicate  the  presence  of  double  reference 
in  their  writings. 

2.   By  means  of  types. 

Not  only  is  multiple  reference  a  feature  of  all  great 
literatures,  the  spontaneous  expression  of  the  imagina- 
tion working  in  literary  channels,  but  in  every  great 
literature  it  often  takes  the  form  of  types.  These 
types  an-  not  apparent  to  every  reader;  and  they  may 
be   but   faint    suggestions    of   meanings   which    perplex 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  225 

and  elude  even  the  most  careful  student.  The  best 
discussion  of  them  is  that  of  Bulwer  in  the  note  at  the 
close  of  the  first  edition  of  his  "  Zanoni."      He  says  : 

All  of  us  can  detect  the  types  in  "Faust"  and  "Ham- 
let" and  "Prometheus,"  but  none  of  us  can  elucidate  them, 
because  the  essence  of  type  is  mystery.  There  is  a  differ- 
ence between  allegorical  and  typical  writing.  An  allegory  is  a 
personation  of  distinct  and  definite  things — virtues  or  qualities — 
and  the  key  can  be  given  easily  ;  but  a  writer  who  conveys  typi- 
cal meanings  may  express  them  in  myriads.  He  cannot  disen- 
tangle all  the  lines  which  commingle  into  the  light  he  seeks  to 
cast  upon  truth  ;  and  therefore  the  great  masters  of  this  en- 
chanted soil — fairyland  of  fairyland — poetry  imbedded  beneath 
poetry — wisely  leave  to  each  mind  to  guess  at  such  truths  as 
best  please  or  instruct  it.  To  have  asked  Goethe  to  explain 
"  Faust  "  would  have  entailed  as  complex  and  puzzling  an  answer 
as  to  have  asked  Mephistopheles  what  is  beneath  the  earth  we 
tread  on.  The  stores  beneath  may  differ  for  every  passenger; 
each  step  may  require  a  new  description;  and  what  is  treasure 
to  the  geologist  may  be  rubbish  to  the  miner.  Six  worlds  may 
lie  under  a  sod,  but  to  the  common  eye  they  are  but  six  layers 
of  stone. 

After  referring  to  Thorwaldsen's  statue  of  Mercury 
as  but  a  single  figure,  and  yet  as  telling  a  whole 
legend  to  those  acquainted  with  mythology,  Bulwer 
continues  : 

Apply  the  principle  of  this  whole  concentration  of  art  to  the 
moral  writer;  he  too  gives  to  your  eye  but  a  single  figure  ;  yet 
each  attitude,  each  expression,  may  refer  to  events  and  truths 
you  must  have  the  learning  to  remember,  the  acuteness  to 
penetrate,  or  the  imagination  to  conjecture.  But  to  a  classical 
judge  of  sculpture,  would  not  the  exquisite  pleasure  of  discover- 
ing the  all  not  told  in  Thorwaldsen's  masterpiece  be  destroyed 
if  the  artist  had  engraved  in  detail  his  meaning  at  the  base  of 
the  statue  ?     Is  it  not  the  same  with  the  typical  sense  which  the 


226       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

artist  in  words  conveys  ?     The  pleasure  of  defining  art  in  each 
is  the  noble  exercise  of  all  by  whom  art  is  worthily  regarded. 

We  shall  gain  a  great  advantage  in  the  study  of  the 
Old  Testament  if  we  shall  bear  in  mind  these  laws  of 
typical  writing ;  the  distinction  between  the  typical 
and  the  allegorical ;  the  partial  working  out  of  the  type 
as  distinguished  from  the  complete  and  clear  finish  of 
the  allegory  ;  the  illusory  character  of  the  type,  which 
gives  u<?  but  a  doubtful  glimpse,  a  dim  suggestion,  of 
its  form,  and  then  recedes  from  our  view,  while  an- 
other figure  as  shadowy  takes  its  place,  so  that  we 
seem  to  be  wandering  at  twilight  through  an  enchanted 
wood,  where  tree  and  shrub  and  tangled  thicket  are 
visible  and  palpable,  and  yet  haunted  with  flitting 
shapes  of  another  world. 

Bulwer,  in  the  extract  cited,  mentions  three  great 
dramas  as  examples  of  writings  pervaded  with  the 
typical  element:  "Faust,"  from  German  literature; 
"  Hamlet,"  from  English  ;  and  "  Prometheus,"  from 
Greek.  In  the  latter  portion  of  his  note  to  "  Zanoni," 
he  tells  us  that  the  typical  element  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  many  modern  novels.  "  Zanoni  "  itself  is 
an  instance,  and  he  ventures  to  lift  the  veil  from  por- 
tions of  this  weird  production,  and  give  us  some  hints 
of  its  subtle  meanings.  Meinour  is  science;  Zanoni 
is  idealism  ;  Viola  is  human  instinct  ;  Mervale  is  con- 
ventionalism ;  Nicot  is  animal  passion  ;  and  Glyndon  is 
unsustained  aspiration. 

In  his  "  Ernest  Maltravers,"  as  he  himself  informs 
us  in  the  preface,  he  has  attempted  another  work  oi 
the  same  kind,  in  which  the  hero  represents  genius, 
and   the    heroine    nature  ;  and   the   intercourse  of    the 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  227 

two,  the  efforts  of  genius  to  free  itself  from  the  fetters 
of  custom  and  ally  itself  with  nature,  resulting  in  a 
union  at  first  illicit,  wild,  stormy,  and  brief,  and  after- 
ward lawful,  gentle,  sweet,  and  permanent. 

Perhaps  the  most  successful  example  of  the  typical 
romance  is  "  Rasselas."  Its  theme  is  the  pursuit  of 
earthly  happiness.  The  happy  valley  is  the  period 
of  youth  when,  shut  in  from  the  great  world,  we 
dream  of  it  as  a  scene  of  triumph  and  enjoyment,  and 
long  to  escape  from  the  limitations  of  our  early  years 
and  go  forth  to  conquer  all  the  delights  which  we  have 
pictured  to  ourselves.  The  philosopher  is  the  teacher, 
who  seeks  to  restrain  the  hot  impulses  of  the  brother 
and  sister,  and  assures  them  that  the  earth  does  not 
contain  the  bliss  which  they  seek.  The  journey 
through  Egypt  is  the  journey  through  adult  life,  which 
brings  little  satisfaction,  and  results  in  our  return  in 
memory  to  the  happy  valley,  the  days  of  childhood, 
where  we  dwell  in  the  fond  recollections  of  our  declin- 
ing years. 

In  "  Caxtoniana,"  Bulwer  says  that  the  "Marble 
Faun,"  of  Hawthorne,  is  a  magnificent  instance  of  the 
typical  in  romance.  He  gives  but  a  few  hints  of  this 
interpretation,  which  I  here  enlarge.  Hilda,  with  her 
white  dress,  her  white  doves,  and  her  residence  in  a 
region  above  Rome,  in  an  atmosphere  free  from  the 
murk  of  the  papal  city,  is  the  puritanism  of  New  Eng- 
land. Donatello,  with  his  resemblance  to  the  Faun  of 
Praxiteles,  with  his  suggestion  of  animal  ears,  with  his 
love  of  sensuous  ease  and  enjoyment,  is  the  religion  of 
nature,  the  Old  Greek  and  Roman  heathenism,  in  the 
garb  of    modern  civilization    and    touched  with   some 


228       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

sense  of  the  loveliness  of  Christianity,  yet  maintain- 
ing its  ancient  characteristics.  Miriam  is  Judaism, 
clinging  with  a  certain  fondness  to  New  England  puri- 
tanism,  since  she  finds  in  this  companionship  freedom 
from  the  dreadful  figure  which  issues  from  the  cata- 
combs, and  proves  to  be  a  monk,  the  representative  of 
Romanism  as  a  persecuting  power.  Miriam  never 
grows  older,  because  she  represents  that  of  which  the 
burning  bush  was  a  type,  the  people  of  Israel,  in  the 
flames,  yet  unconsuraed  ;  ancient,  and  yet  ever  young. 
Donatello  and  Miriam  had  known  each  other  in  the 
past,  and  together  had  committed  a  great  crime,  the 
crucifixion  of  Christ,  in  which  pagan  and  Jew  joined 
bloody  hands.  They  unite  once  more  in  the  murder  of 
the  monk,  by  which  they  set  forth  the  low  morality  of 
the  religions  they  portray  to  us,  as  well  as  prophesy 
the  punishment  of  persecuting  Christianity  by  the  vio- 
lent uprising  of  the  world  against  it. 

The  first  reference  is  often  typical  of  the  second, 
and  hence,  in  all  literatures,  as  in  the  Bible,  the  typical 
element  is  prominent.      Scherer  '  says  : 

The  "  First  Part  of  Faust"  was  completed  as  far  as  possible 
in  the  style  of  Goethe's  cultured  realism,  and  in  accordance  with 
the  typical  method  of  his  ripest  art,  as  we  find  it  in  "  Hermann 
and  Dorothea."  The  "  Prelude  at  the  Theatre"  contrasts  in  a 
typical  manner  the  poet's  vocation  and  the  actor's.  The  sonjjs 
of  the  three  which  open  the  "  Prologue  in  Heaven," 

are  an  attempt  to  picture  to  us  the  world  under  its  eternal  aspects. 
The  suicide  scene  and  the  walk  on  Faster  Sunday  afford  us 
typi<  al  pil  Cures  "t    human  lite  as  a  whole. 

Scherer  tells  us  also  that  the  "  Votive  Tablets "  <>f 


'"History  "i    German    Literature.1  bj    .Mis.  Cod] 

under  the  supervision  of  Max  Mllller,  Vol,  [I.,  p.  328. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  229 

Schiller  are  remarkable  for  "  their  comprehensive  treat- 
ment of  the  typical  relations  and  typical  contrasts  of 
life."  In  his  "  Wallenstein's  Camp"  he  "adopts 
Goethe's  generalizing  and  typical  method.  All  the 
possible  types  of  military  life  are  embodied  in  indi- 
viduals, who  are  cleverly  contrasted  with  each  other." 
Of  types  in  French  literature,  Stainsbury x  says  ; 

If  there  is  one  fault  to  be  found  with  the  creations  of  French 
literary  art,  it  is  that  they  run  too  much  to  types.  .  .  It  is  the 
fault  of  French  literature  to  give  the  type  only,  without  differen- 
tiation. An  ill-natured  critic  constantly  feels  inclined  to  alter 
the  lists  of  Racine's  dramatis  persona,  and  instead  of  the  proper 
names  to  substitute  "a  lover,"  "a  mother,"  "a  tyrant,"  and 
so  on.  So  great  an  artist  and  so  careful  a  worker  as  Racine 
could  not,  of  course,  escape  giving  some  individuality  to  his 
creations.  Hermione,  Phedre,  Achille,  Berenice,  Athalie,  all 
are  individual  enough  of  their  class.  But  the  class  is  a  class  of 
types,  rather  than  of  individuals.  After  long  debate  this  differ- 
ence has  been  admitted  by  most  reasonable  French  critics. 

Of  Moliere's  characters  the  same  critic  says  :  "  Al- 
ceste,  the  impatient  but  not  cynical  hero  ;  Celimene, 
the  coquette ;  Oronte,  the  fop  ;  Eliante,  the  reasonable 
woman  ;  Arsinoe,  the  mischief-maker,  are  all  immortal 
types." 

I  shall  close  my  survey  of  the  three  great  modern 
literatures  by  quoting  a  passage  which  links  them  to- 
gether in  one  view ;  it  is  from  "  The  Poetry  of  Tenny- 
son," by  Henry  J.  Van  Dyke  : 

In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  three  great  artists  set 
themselves  at  work  to  embody  their  conceptions  of  human  life 
and  destiny  in  the  forms  of  art. 

Victor  Hugo  was  the  first.      He  tells  us,  in  one  of  his  prefaces, 

1  "  History  of  French  Literature,"  p.  303. 
U 


230        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

that  it  was  his  design  to  describe  "  the  threefold  conflict  of  man  : 
in  religion,  against  the  constraint  of  dogmas  ;  in  society,  against 
the  constraint  of  laws  ;  in  nature,  against  the  constraint  of 
things. ' '  The  results  of  his  labors  were  ' '  Notre  Dame  de  Paris, ' ' 
"  Les  Miserables,"  and  "  Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer. " 

Richard  Wagner  was  the  second.  It  was  in  1857  that  he 
turned  from  the  Niebelungen  legends  to  the  Arthurian  cycle,  and 
made  the  story  of  "Tristan  und  Isolde"  a  musical  vehicle  for 
his  theory,  derived  from  Schopenhauer,  that  the  essence  of  sin 
is  the  desire  of  personal  existence.  This  opera  was  followed  by 
"Parsifal,"  in  which  he  taught  that  the  essence  of  virtue  is 
compassion  for  the  sufferings  of  others.  It  was  his  intention  to 
write  a  third  opera  called  "Die  Sieger,"  or  "Die  Biisser,"  in 
which  the  essence  of  holiness  should  be  shown  as  the  resignation 
of  the  desire  for  life.  Thus  his  great  trilogy  was  meant  to  be 
the  pessimistic  philosophy  set  to  music. 

The  third  artist  was  Alfred  Tennyson.  His  purpose  was  to 
depict  the  warfare  of  humanity  in  a  poem.  Like  Wagner,  he 
turned  to  the  past  for  his  material,  and  was  attracted  by  the 
mystical  beauty  of  the  Arthurian  legends.  In  these  antique 
myths  he  desired  to  embody  his  own  theory  of  human  life. 
Tristram  and  Percivale  become  living  characters  in  his  poetry  as 
truly  as  in  the  music  of  Wagner.  The  latest  great  picture  of 
man's  conflict  with  sin  and  fate  is  "  The  Idyls  of  the  King." 

Thus  the  great  characters  of  Victor  Hugo  are  typical 
representatives  of  humanity  as  a  whole ;  the  great 
characters  of  Wagner  are  typical  representativ< 
sin  and  virtue;  and  the  great  characters  of  Tennyson 
are  typical  representatives  of  various  fleshly  passions 
and  spiritual  excellencies. 

In  Greek  literature,  as  in  Hebrew  and  Christian,  the 
writer  often  treats  history  as  a  type  oi  other  history. 
Thus  Ottfried  Mtiller'  says: 

We  have  shown  in  a  former  chapter  that  the  notion  of  an  an- 
1  "  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,"  Vol.  1.,  p.  425. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  231 

cient  conflict  between  Asia  and  Europe,  leading,  by  successive 
stages,  to  events  constantly  increasing  in  magnitude,  was  one  of 
the  prevailing  ideas  of  that  time.  It  is  probable  that  yEschylus 
took  this  idea  as  the  basis  of  the  prophecies  of  Phineus,  and 
that  he  represented  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  as  a  type  of 
the  greater  conflicts  between  Asia  and  Europe  which  succeeded  it. 

That  the  characters  of  Greek  mythology  were  used 
typically  by  the  Greek  writers  need  scarcely  be  said. 
Thus  in  all  Greek  literature  Orpheus  is  the  type  of  the 
musician  and  of  musical  charm. 

These  examples  of  the  typical  in  the  secular  litera- 
tures must  suffice,  though  the  material  at  my  command 
tempts  me  to  extend  them  greatly.  They  present 
every  kind  of  double  reference  by  means  of  types 
which  any  one  has  ever  found  in  the  Scriptures,  as  will 
be  manifest  when  we  examine  the  quotations  of  the 
New  Testament  in  which  this  feature  is  assumed. 

V.  Double  Reference  in  Scripture. 

After  this  survey  of  the  great  literatures  of  the 
world,  the  element  of  double  reference  in  the  Scrip- 
tures will  create  no  difficulty  in  any  mind.  We  shall 
look  for  it,  and  shall  be  disappointed  if  we  do  not  find 
it  in  abundance.  To  deny  that  it  exists  in  Hebrew 
literature  would  be  to  deny  that  this  literature  was  at 
all  produced  according  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  the 
human  mind,  to  set  it  off  by  itself  as  a  product  of 
eccentricity,  and  to  make  it  barren  of  thought  and 
imagination  beyond  example. 

I  shall  now  examine  a  number  of  passages  in  which 
the  element  of  double  reference  has  been  discerned  by 
other  writers.      In  some  of  these   I   shall  not  find  it. 


232        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

In  others  it  will  appear  so  prominent  that  no  one  can 
mistake  it.  In  yet  others  it  may  be  less  obvious,  and 
hence  may  perplex  the  reader. 

I.  In  his  great  prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem and  of  the  end  of  the  world,  our  Lord  quotes 
frequently  from  the  Old  Testament  ;  but  only  one  of 
his  quotations  has  occasioned  question.  It  is  that  of 
Dan.  9  :  27,  at  Matt.  24  :  1  5  and  Mark  13:  14  :  "  When 
ye  see  the  abomination  of  desolation  .  .  .  standing  in 
the  holy  place."  Luke,  21  :  20,  omits  the  quotation, 
and  states  its  meaning  in  plain  terms  :  "  When  ye  see 
Jerusalem  compassed  with  armies."  Is  the  passage  in 
Daniel,  then,  a  prediction  of  the  Roman  conquest  of 
the  holy  city  ? 

It  may  refer  to  the  conquest  by  Antiochus  ;  and  our 
Lord  may  have  intended  only  to  say  :  "  When  ye  see 
Jerusalem  beleaguered  as  it  was  in  the  days  of  the 
Syrian  invasion,  escape  for  your  lives."  Thus  a  physi- 
cian might  write  with  propriety  :  "  When  the  plague 
described  by  Defoe  appears  again  in  London,  flee  at 
once,  not  waiting  to  prepare,  or  to  take  your  posses- 
sions with  you."  This  is  the  view  of  Toy:  "The 
reference  in  the  Gospels  is  to  the  destruction  of  the 
temple  by  the  Romans  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
passage  in  Daniel  is  cited  as  a  prophecy  of  this  event." 

Or  we  may  regard  the  passage  as  referring  to  both 
events,  and  thus  as  making  the  first  a  type  of  the 
second. 

It  seems  to  me,  however,  to  relate  directly  to  the 
coming  and  death  of  Christand  the  subsequent  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  Those  who  refer  it 
to  the   period  of   Antiochus  do   so,  not   on   any  ground 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  233 

afforded  by  the  passage  itself,  but  because  of  a  precon- 
ception concerning  the  date  of  the  book  of  Daniel  and 
concerning  the  limitations  of  prophecy  in  general. 
The  whole  passage,  as  rendered  in  the  Revised  version, 
is  as  follows ;  let  the  reader  judge  its  meaning  for 
himself  : 

Seventy  weeks  are  decreed  upon  thy  people  and 
upon  the  holy  city,  to  finish  transgression  and  to  make 
an  end  of  sins,  and  to  make  reconciliation  for  iniquity, 
and  to  bring  in  everlasting  righteousness,  and  to  seal 
up  vision  and  prophecy,  and  to  anoint  the  most  holy. 
Know  therefore  and  discern,  that  from  the  going  forth 
of  the  commandment  to  restore  and  to  build  Jerusalem 
unto  the  anointed  one,  the  prince,  shall  be  seven 
weeks  :  and  threescore  and  two  weeks,  it  shall  be  built 
again,  with  street  and  moat,  even  in  troublous  times. 
And  after  the  threescore  and  two  weeks  shall  the 
anointed  one  be  cut  off,  and  shall  have  nothing :  and 
the  people  of  the  prince  that  shall  come  shall  destroy 
the  city  and  the  sanctuary  ;  and  his  end  shall  be  with  a 
flood,  and  even  unto  the  end  shall  be  war ;  desolations 
are  determined.  And  he  shall  make  a  firm  covenant 
with  many  for  one  week  :  and  for  the  half  of  the  week 
he  shall  cause  the  sacrifice  and  the  oblation  to  cease ; 
and  upon  the  wing  of  abominations  shall  come  one  that 
maketh  desolate ;  and  even  unto  the  consummation, 
and  that  determined,  shall  wrath  be  poured  out  upon 
the  desolator. 

II.  The  quotations  from  Isa.  40  :  3-5  in  Matt.  3:3; 
Mark  1:3;  Luke  3  :  4-6  and  John  1:23,  give  rise 
to  the  following  comment  by  Toy  : 

The  passage  in  Isaiah  is  a  description  of  Israel's  return  to 
Canaan,  from  the  exile  in  Babylon,  across  the  desert  ;  the  re- 
moval of  all  obstacles  out  of  the  way  is  represented  under  the 


234        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

form  of  the  construction  of  a  smooth  road  through  the  wilder- 
ness; and  the  march  of  the  people  is  described  as  the  march  of 
Yahwe,  God  of  Israel,  who  would  lead  his  people  home.  The 
prophet  refers  to  nothing  but  this  event  in  the  history  of  Israel. 
But  in  later  times  the  tendency  of  Jewish  exegesis  was  to  find 
Messianic  predictions  everywhere  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  es- 
pecially in  Isa.  40-46  ;  and  when  the  Gospels  were  written  such 
acts  of  preparation  as  are  here  described  would  naturally  be 
connected  with  Christ's  forerunner,  John  the  Baptist.  The 
striking  parallelism  between  the  two  periods  is  obvious;  in  the  one 
case  God  manifests  his  glory  by  delivering  Israel  from  exile 
and  planting  his  church  in  Canaan;  in  the  other  by  the  an- 
nouncement of  his  universal  truth  in  Jesus,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  his  church  in  the  world;  and  in  both  cases  there  is  a 
preparation  for  the  great  act.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  Jesus  repre- 
sents the  consummation  of  God's  dealings  with  Israel  and  with 
the  world.      His  person  embodies  all  Israel's  religious  history. 

The  great  majority  of  critics,  however,  see  in  the 
prophecy  something  more  than  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon, and  in  its  application  to  the  Baptist  something 
more  than  the  expression  of  the  resemblance  of  the 
two  epochs  of  history,  or  the  embodiment  of  all  Jewish 
history  in  the  person  of  the  Messiah.  Their  views  are 
well  expressed  by  Cheyne  :  "  I  hold  with  Dr.  Franz 
Delitzsch,  that  however  limited  the  historical  horizon 
of  these  chapters  may  be,  the  significance  of  their  pre- 
sentiments is  not  bounded  by  the  exile,  but  extends  to 
the  advent  of  the  historical  Christ,  and  even  beyond." 
Again  he  says  of  the  whole  section  :  "  Let  us  now  ap- 
proach with  sympathetic  minds  this  Gospel  before  the 
gospel.  Though  written  primarily  for  the  exiles  at 
Babylon,  its  scope  is  wide  as  that  of  any  part  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  New  Testament  qualifications  are 
required   alike   in   the   interpreter  and   in  his  readers." 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  235 

He  reminds  us  that  the  address  in  the  chapter  now 
before  us  is  to  the  prophets,  so  that,  when  it  is  said, 
"Prepare  ye  in  the  wilderness  the  way  of  Jehovah," 
the  reference  must  be  to  the  preparation  of  the  hearts 
of  the*people  under  the  influence  of  prophetic  teach- 
ing, precisely  as  the  words  are  interpreted  in  the  New 
Testament,  where  the  greatest  of  the  prophets  is  shown 
to  us  "  making  ready  for  the  Lord  a  people."  It  may 
be  true,  though  it  is  not  proved,  that  the  prophecy  was 
suggested  by  the  circumstances  of  the  prophet's  own 
time  ;  yet,  if  so,  these  circumstances  were  typical  of 
greater  things  ;  his  vision  sweeps  beyond  them  ;  and 
his  language  becomes  a  prediction,  first  of  the  pro- 
phetic forerunner  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  then  of  the 
coming  of  God  himself  in  the  person  of  his  Son. 

But  I  do  not  see  in  this  prophecy  any  reference 
whatever  to  the  restoration  of  Israel  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity.  "  The  specific  application  of  this 
chapter  to  the  return  from  Babylon,"  says  Alexander, 
"is  without  the  least  foundation  in  the  text  itself." 
Alford  pronounces  it  "very  doubtful."  It  is  difficult 
to  read  the  passage  with  the  coming  of  the  forerunner 
and  of  the  Son  of  God  in  mind,  and  not  find  in  it  an 
independent  and  formal  prediction  of  these  events ;  for 
they  fulfill  its  language  most  literally. 

The  Hebrew  is  best  construed  by  reading  it,  "  The 
voice  of  one  that  crieth,  In  the  wilderness  prepare  ye 
the  way  of  the  Lord  "  ;  yet  it  might  without  violence 
be  read  as  in  the  New  Testament  quotations,1  "  The 

i  The  New  Testament  form  is  held  to  be  correct  by  the  common  English 
version,  by  the  "  Speaker's  Commentary,"  and  by  the  margin  of  the  Re- 
vised version. 


236       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

voice  of  one  that  crieth  in  the  wilderness,  Prepare  ye 
the  way  of  the  Lord."  Possibly  the  construction  of 
the  New  Testament  writers  was  preferred  by  them  in 
order  to  show  the  connection  of  the  prophecy  with  the 
fact  that  John  preached  in  the  wilderness.  In  any  case, 
the  change,  if  we  grant  that  they  make  one,  is  only 
formal,  and  does  not  affect  the  thought.  The  figure 
employed  by  Isaiah  is  that  of  a  forerunner  of  a  king 
who  is  about  to  come.  The  office  of  the  forerunner 
was  to  summon  the  inhabitants  along  the  proposed 
route  to  mend  it  and  make  it  fit  for  the  use  of  the 
monarch.  The  proclamation  to  prepare  a  way  in  the 
wilderness  would  be  published  in  the  wilderness,  whose 
scattered  tribes  would  be  summoned  to  the  work. 
Thus  the  thought  found  by  the  New  Testament  writers 
in  the  passage  is  implied  in  the  form  which  the  majority 
of  critics  give  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament. 

III.  I  turn  now  from  these  quotations,  which  are  not 
easily  classified,  to  others  which  present  their  double 
reference  upon  their  very  face,  in  whose  presence  the 
most  skeptical  mind  must  grant  that  the  Scriptures 
contain  an  element  of  double  reference.  Thus  even 
Kuenen  admits  that  it  exists  in  the  second  and  tenth 
Psalms,  though  his  admission  is  made  with  evident 
reluctance.  "The  relative  justice  of  the  Messianic 
understanding"  of  these  psalms,  he  says,  "is  apparent." 
"We  do  not  overlook  the  fact,"  he  adds,  "that  the 
poet  who  composed  the  second  Psalm,  although  pro- 
ceeding upon  a  reality,  yet,  just  because  he  is  a  poet, 
rises  far  above  the  reality.  The  historical  king  whom 
he  has  in  view  assumes,  as  it  were,  larger  proportions, 
and   becomes,  as  depicted   by  him,  an    ideal.      Connect- 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  237 

ing  points  therefore  are  not  wanting  for  applying  this 
poem  to  the  Messiah."  "  Very  much  the  same  is  true 
of  Psalm  1 10."  "In  this  Psalm,  least  of  any,  are  the 
poetical  and  ideal  features  wanting,  and  thus  the  Mes- 
sianic interpretation  of  it  very  readily  suggests  itself." 
But  a  reference  to  the  real  and  the  ideal  by  the  same 
word,  the  same  sentence,  the  same  passage,  is  double 
reference.  And,  though  Kuenen  would  not  say  so,  the  v 
Messianic  reference  of  prophecy  often  consists  precisely 
in  this  ascension  to  the  ideal  from  the  real  as  a  basis. 
This  is  well  expressed  by  Riehm  :  "  In  prophetic  fore- 
sight we  have  to  distinguish  between  two  different 
elements.  The  one  is  more  ideal  and  general,  the 
other  of  a  more  concrete,  historical  nature."  The 
latter  is  concerned  with  the  character  or  event  of  the 
time ;  the  former  with  the  larger  features  of  the  Mes- 
sianic age. 

These  admissions  of  Kuenen  are  strengthened,  rather 
than  weakened,  by  his  effort  to  prejudice  his  readers 
against  the  New  Testament  writers  for  the  manner  in 
which  they  have  used  the  second  Psalm  :  "  These 
words,"  he  says,  referring  to  the  declaration  of  Jehovah, 
"Thou  art  my  son;  this  day  have  I  begotten  thee," 
"are  regarded  in  Heb.  1  :  5  ;  5  :  5  as  an  address  of 
God  to  his  Son  in  his  pre-existent  state  ;  in  Acts  13:33 
they  are  brought  into  connection  with  the  resurrection 
of  Jesus,  and  therefore  understood  as  the  formula  in 
which  the  Messianic  dignity  is  conferred  upon  him." 
This  diversity  of  view  of  the  two  New  Testament 
writers,  did  it  exist,  would  create  no  difficulty,  for  the 
passage  might  very  well  refer  to  the  Son  of  God  both 
in  his  pre-existent  state  and  in  his  state  of  exaltation 


233 

at  his  resurrection,  since  the  glory  of  the  two  states 
was  essentially  the  same  (John  17:5).  But  the  sup- 
posed diversity  of  view  does  not  exist.  "  In  Acts  1 3  : 
33  the  words  are  brought  into  connection  with  the  res- 
urrection of  Jesus,"  as  Kuenen  says,  and  they  are 
brought  into  no  other  connection  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  In  Heb.  1  :  5  they  are  quoted  as  referring 
to  the  glory  of  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God,  but  no  point 
of  time  is  indicated,  unless  it  is  that  of  the  preceding 
verse,  which  refers  to  the  glory  to  which  his  resurrec- 
tion introduced  him.  In  Heb.  5  :  5-10,  the  words  of 
the  psalm  are  distinctly  referred  to  this  state  of  glory ; 
for  both  his  Sonship  and  his  priesthood  are  considered 
as  having  commenced  after  his  sufferings.  Thus,  all 
the  instances  in  which  the  psalm  is  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament  are  in  perfect  accord.  It  should  be  added 
that  both  in  the  Acts  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
the  Sonship  of  Christ  is  regarded  as  beginning  at  his 
resurrection  only  declaratively,  since  that  event  demon- 
strated to  the  world  a  dignity  which  had  existed  from 
eternity. 

IV.  In  Ps.  45  :  6,  7,  we  have  a  passage  which  is  re- 
produced in  Heb.  1  :  8,  9,  as  a  proof  of  the  superiority 
of  Jesus  to  the  angels  : 

Thy  throne,  O  God,  is  for  ever  and  ever; 

A  sceptre  of  equity  is  the  sceptre  of  thy  kingdom. 

The  psalm  undoubtedly  has  primary  reference  to  an 
earthly  king,  as  is  evident  from  such  phrases'  as  " the 
queen  in  gold  of  Ophir,"  and  "the daughter  of  Tyre"  ; 
but  the  writer  is  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  use  lan- 
guage in  the  verses  quoted  in  the  New    Testament  such 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  239 

as  can  with  extreme  difficulty  be  applied  to  any  earthly 
monarch.  Those  who  deny  that  there  is  an  element 
of  double  reference  in  the  Scriptures  are  sorely  troubled 
by  this  passage.  Kuenen  says  :  "  The  predicate  '  God  ' 
is  assigned  to  the  person  here  addressed.  Does  not 
this  circumstance  absolutely  forbid  us  to  see  in  him  an 
earthly  king  ?  In  truth,  the  question  at  first  causes  us 
perplexity.  We  are  inclined  to  answer  it  in  the  affirm- 
ative. There  are  no  passages  in  which  the  Hebrew 
word  '  Elohim '  is  clearly  applied  to  man."  Both 
Kuenen  and  Toy,  after  rejecting  all  the  efforts  of 
others  to  give  the  passage  as  it  stands  an  explanation 
consonant  with  the  reference  of  the  words  to  a  human 
being,  adopt  the  supposition  that  something  has 
dropped  out  of  the  text  in  the  process  of  copying.  Of 
this,  however,  there  is  absolutely  no  evidence.  Such 
as  the  Hebrew  text  is  to-day  it  was  in  the  apostolic 
age,  and  in  that  of  the  translators  of  the  Septuagint, 
two  centuries  before  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
written.  It  is  only  by  the  most  violent  methods,  there- 
fore, that  this  psalm  can  be  regarded  as  other  than  an 
instance  of  double  reference,  in  which  the  language 
spoken  of  an  earthly  king  rises  to  so  lofty  a  pitch  that 
it  plainly  points  to  the  King  of  kings  and  Lord  of 
lords.  The  passage  thus  presents  us  an  instance  in 
which  the  secondary  reference  is  indicated  by  an  over- 
flow of  language.  The  prophetic  author  shows  that 
he  regards  the  immediate  object  of  his  poem  as  a  type 
of  Christ  by  breaking  forth  into  a  strain  of  phrase- 
ology too  lofty  to  be  applied  to  any  earthly  monarch, 
precisely  as  Tennyson  shows  that  the  ocean  which  bore 
Arthur  from  his  people  is  the  ocean  of  time,  by  using 


240       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

terms  in  reference  to  it  which  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
literal  ocean. 

V.  These  examples  may  have  sufficed  to  suggest 
to  the  reader  the  abundance  of  the  typical  element 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Of  this  element  Tholuck 
says  : 

If  we  adhere  to  the  Redeemer  himself,  we  believe  it  can  be 
put  beyond  all  doubt  that,  in  declaring  that  the  Old  Testament 
bore  witness  to  him,  he  referred  principally  to  its  typical  aspect. 
When,  in  Luke  24  :  27,  44,  45,  it  is  said  that  he  proved  to  his 
disciples  the  necessity  of  his  sufferings  and  his  glory,  from  Moses 
and  all  the  prophets,  whence  could  he  take  such  passages  with  a 
typical  exposition  ?  Must  not  John  3  :  14,  "  As  Moses  lifted  up 
the  serpent,"  etc.,  etc.,  be  accepted  as  a  plain  indication  of  our 
Lord's  method  on  this  occasion  ? 

There  are  two  remarkable  passages  relative  to  this  subject 
which  have  not  yet  been  noticed  (Matt.  11  :  14  and  Mark  9  : 
13)  ;  in  the  latter  of  which  it  is  said,  "  But  I  say  unto  you  that 
Elijah  is  come,  and  they  have  also  done  unto  him  whatsoever 
they  listed,  even  as  it  is  written  of  him."  First  of  all,  these 
passages  show  that  the  Redeemer  understood  what  is  said  of 
Elijah  in  Mai.  4  :  5  in  a  typical  sense  of  him  who  came  in  the 
spirit  of  Elijah  under  the  New  Covenant  (Luke  1:17).  Still 
more  striking  are  the  last  words  in  the  passage  of  Mark,  '•  as  it 
is  written  of  him."  What  is  there  in  the*  >ld  Testament  respect- 
ing the  sufferings  of  John  the  Baptist?  Can  any  one  persuade 
himself  that  Christ  would  ever  forcibly  take  a  passage  out  of  its 
connection  and  refer  it  directly  to  the  Baptist  ?  These  words  re- 
main inexplicable  so  long  as  it  is  not  admitted  that  Christ,  as  far 
as  the  idea  of  Elijah  was  realized  in  the  Baptist,  looked  upon 
the  sufferings  of  the  Old  Testament  Elijah  as  a  typical  prophecy 
of  those  of  his  copy.  In  perfect  analogy  with  Christ's  conduct 
on  this  occasion  is  what  he  says  in  John  13  :  t8land  15  :  25,2 

1  "  lie  that  eatetfa  mj  bread  lifted  up  his  heel  against  me." 

2  "They  bated  me  without  a  1  uusc." 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  241 

that  the  words  in  Ps.  41  and  69  were  fulfilled  in  himself;  or 
when  in  Luke  22  :  37  he  considers  the  words,  "and  he  was 
reckoned  with  the  transgressors,"  as  a  thing  "written,"  which 
was  to  be  fulfilled  in  him.  So  also  in  that  last  exclamation  on 
the  cross,  "  Eli,  Eli,  lama  sabachthani,"  will  such  a  typical  refer- 
ence be  admitted  ;  not  as  if  a  reflection  on  his  own  lot  compared 
with  David's  had  led  him  to  these  words  ;  but  that  with  the  rec- 
ollection of  these  words,  a  consciousness  of  their  typical  char- 
acter had  been  present  at  the  same  time.  And  certainly  all 
typical  references  of  this  kind  are  taken  in  their  full  significance 
only  when  the  Old  Testament  saints,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
New,  are  considered  as  members  of  one  and  the  same  mystical 
Christ  who  is  described  in  history. 

VI.  In  an  excellent  article  on  this  subject  by  Rev. 
W.  W.  McLane,  d.  d.,  published  in  the  "  Homiletic 
Review"  for  June,  1890,  two  kinds  of  types  are  recog- 
nized : 

Those  types  of  which  Christ  is  the  antitype  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes.  __  There  are  types  of  Christ  in  which  the  re- 
semblance lies  in  external  circumstances,  in  outward  relations, 
and  in  incidents  of  personal  experience,  like  the  lifting  up  of 
the  brazen  serpent  in  the  wilderness,  and  like  the  experience  of 
Jonah,  in  which  Jesus  saw  types  of  his  crucifixion  and  resurrec- 
tion. There  are  other  types  of  Christ  which  formed  ^a  perma- 
nent part  of  the  ceremonial  system  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
which  were  a  means  of  education,  in  which  the  resemblance  lies 
in  the  spirit  rather  than  in  the  form,  however  much  resemblance 
there  may  be  also  in  the  form))  and  which  continued  to  exist 
until  they  were  fulfilled  in  Christ.  Biologists  distinguish  be- 
tween analogous  forms  and  homologous  forms.  Those  organs 
of  different  animals  which,  however  different  their  origin,  have 
a  similarity  of  form  and  function,  are  said  to  be  analogous. 
The  wing  of  a  bird  and  the  wing  of  a  butterfly  are  analogous 
organs  ;  they  have  the  same  function,  but  they  have  not  the 
same  origin.  Those  organs  of  different  animals  which  have  the 
V 


242        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW  TESTAMENT 

same  origin,  though  they  may  be  modified  for  different  purposes, 
are  said  to  be  homologous.  The  wing  of  a  bird,  the  forepaw  of 
a  reptile,  and  the  arm  and  hand  of  a  man,  are  homologous 
organs,  having  the  same  origin.  Their  relation  lies  in  some- 
thing deeper  than  mere  form.  We  may  make  the  same  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  classes  of  types  now  under  consideration. 
There  are  analogous  types  of  Christ,  and  there  are  homologous 
types  of  Christ.  The  incidents  in  the  life  of  Joseph,  Moses, 
David,  and  Jonah,  which  correspond  to  incidents  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  are  analogous  types  of  Christ  ;  they  have  resemblance  in 
relationship  ;  but  they  do  not  form  an  essential  and  inseparable 
part  of  that  process  of  revelation  and  redemption  by  which  God 
is  fulfilling  his  eternal  purpose. \_The  central  elements  of  the 
ceremonial  system  of  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  the  sacrifice, 
the  priesthood,  and  the  tabernacle,  are  homologous  types  of 
Christ.  They  constitute  an  essential  and  an  inseparable  part  of 
the  process  of  divine  revelation  and  human  redemption.  Their 
truest  resemblance  to  Christ  must  be  sought  and  found  in  the 
source  and  spirit  of  salvation  which  they  symbolize. 

VII.  Among  the  recent  helpful  thoughts  on  this 
subject  is  that  of  Professor  Burnham,  of  Colgate  Uni- 
versity, not  yet  published,  but  which  he  makes  part 
of  his  class-room  instruction.  In  substance,  it  is  as 
follows  : 

The  Old  Testament  prophet,  speaking  of  some  object  of  his 
thought,  may  see  the  object  in  a  different  light  from  that  of  the 
New  Testament  writer  who  quotes  his  language,  or  from  a  differ- 
ent point  of  view,  or  in  a  larger  measure.  The  uneducated  per- 
son, when  he  speaks  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  has  a  conception 
very  different  from  that  of  the  astronomer  who  uses  the  same 
he  thinks  of  the  movements  of  a  clod  or  a  stone, 
while  the  astronomer  thinks  of  worlds  and  the  order  of  the 
universe.  So  the  prophet,  straining  his  vision  forward  in  the 
twilight  of  the  Jewish  dispensation,  maj  see  the  Messiah  but 
dimly  and  write  of  him  in  broken   phrases,  which  the  inspired 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  243 

teachers  of  Christianity,  seeing  in  the  full  effulgence  of  the  noon- 
day, may  quote  with  propriety  as  finding  their  completion  in  the 
Christ  with  whom  they  had  an  acquaintance  so  much  larger  and 
fuller.  Any  difficulties  to  be  found  in  such  prophetic  passages, 
and  in  their  adjustment  to  their  setting  in  the  New  Testament, 
will  arise  from  the  necessary  limitations  of  the  holy  men  who  first 
penned  them. 

VIII.  An  instance  of  this  kind  may  be  found  at 
John  12  :  40,  41,  where  Isa.  6  :  9,  lo  is  quoted  : 

He  hath  blinded  their  eyes,  and  he  hardened  their  heart; 

Lest  they  should  see  with  their  eyes,  and  perceive  with  their  heart, 

And  should  turn, 

And  I  should  heal  them. 

The  quotation  immediately  preceding  this  one  is 
from  Isa.  53  :  1.  John  comments  as  follows  on  the 
two  :  "  These  things  said  Isaiah,  because  he  saw  his 
glory  ;  and  he  spake  of  him."  Thus  Isaiah  penned 
his  fifty-third  chapter,  from  which  the  first  quotation  is 
taken,  and  also  his  sixth  chapter,  from  which  the 
second  quotation  is  taken,  because  he  had  a  vision  of 
the  Messiah  in  glory.  His  fifty-third  chapter  is  chiefly 
concerned  with  the  humiliation  of  Christ ;  yet  gleams 
of  glory  break  through  its  darkest  clouds  :  "  Therefore 
will  I  divide  him  a  portion  with  the  great,  and  he  shall 
divide  the  spoil  with  the  strong."  But  in  his  sixth 
chapter  the  prophet  describes  a  vision  of  far  greater 
splendor.  Few  passages  in  even  inspired  literature  are 
more  magnificent  than  this.  The  glory  which  he  be- 
held was  that  of  Jehovah  ;  and  John  applies  the  pas- 
sage to  Christ,  because  the  Christ  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old,  the  essential   Deity. 


244        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

This  identification  is  not  peculiar  to  John,  but  runs 
through  the  whole  New  Testament.  Thus  Meyer : 
"  In  the  Old  Testament  theophanies  it  is  precisely 
Christ  who  is  present  as  the  Logos,  and  the  glory  is 
his.  Of  course  the  glory  of  Christ  before  the  incar- 
nation is  intended,  the  'form  of  God'  in  which  he 
was." 

The  Jehovah  thus  revealed  to  Isaiah  commissioned 
him  to  go  to  the  Jewish  people  with  messages  of  warn- 
ing and  entreaty  and  hope.  He  told  him  plainly,  how- 
ever, that  his  message  would  be  rejected,  owing  to  the 
hardness  of  the  hearts  to  whom  it  was  sent  ;  nay,  that 
in  many  cases  it  would  even  increase  the  obduracy, 
instead  of  removing  it.  The  statement  had  its  most 
perfect  fulfillment  in  the  rejection  of  Christ  by  his 
people.  If  they  would  not  bear  the  twilight  of  type 
and  prophecy,  they  would  certainly  be  repelled  by  the 
full  blaze  of  celestial  glory  which  the  person  of  Jesus 
shed  on  them. 

IX.  A  recognition  by  Christ  of  the  typical  element 
in  the  Old  Testament  is  found  at  John  i  :  51,  where 
he  refers  to  Gen.  28  :  12.  We  are  there  told  that 
Jacob  "  dreamed,  and  behold  a  ladder  set  up  on  the 
earth,  and  the  top  of  it  reached  to  heaven  :  and  behold 
the  angels  of  God  ascending  and  descending  on  it." 
In  the  Gospel  our  Lord  applies  this  language  to  him- 
self :  "  Ye  shall  see  the  heaven  opened,  and  the  angels 
of  God  ascending  and  descending  upon  the  Son  of 
man."  lie  does  not  say  that  the  vision  of  Jacob  is  to 
be  regarded  as  in  a  special  sense  a  prophecy,  tor  it  was 

designed  to  teach  Jacob  that  God  watched  over  him 
and  sent  his  aneyls  to  minister  to  him.      Vet  it  is  most 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  245 

completely  fulfilled  in  him  who  is  the  medium  of  com- 
munication between  God  and  man  ;  and  hence  it  is  a 
vivid  symbol  of  him  in  his  mediatorial  office,  and  is 
presented  to  us  as  such  in  this  allusion  to  it. 

X.  A  similar  use  is  made  of  the  Old  Testament  in 
John  6:31,  where  the  language  of  Ps.  78  :  24  is  ap- 
plied to  Christ  himself.  The  psalmist  remembered  the 
manna,  and  wrote : 

And  gave  them  of  the  corn  of  heaven. 

The  hearers  of  Christ  cited  this  line  in  a  free  version  : 
"  He  gave  them  bread  out  of  heaven  to  eat,"  and  asked 
him  to  produce  some  sign.  He  answered  that  he  him- 
self was  the  sign  they  demanded  :  "  The  bread  of  God 
is  that  which  cometh  down  out  of  heaven  and  giveth 
life  unto  the  world."  The  manna  was  a  symbol  of 
Christ  in  its  origin  and  its  life-giving  properties. 

XI.  The  same  typical  interpretation  is  found  in  John 
15  :  25,  where  our  Lord  says  that  the  opposition  of  his 
foes  "cometh  to  pass,  that  the  word  may  be  fulfilled 
that  is  written  in  their  law,  They  hated  me  without  a 
cause."  The  quotation  is  probably  from  Ps.  69  :  4, 
which  we  have  found  Messianic  in  so  many  other  pas- 
sages, the  psalmist  speaking  of  himself,  but  so  speak- 
ing under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  as  to  become 
a  type  of  Christ,  since  the  things  he  speaks  are  ful- 
filled perfectly  in  Christ,  and  only  imperfectly  in  him- 
self. The  expression  is  also  found  in  Ps.  35  :  19  ;  and 
expressions  like  it  in  Ps.  109  :  3  and  119  :  161. 

XII.  This  typical  interpretation  is  found  again  at 
John    19  :  24  : 


246       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

That  the  Scripture  might  be  fulfilled  which  saith, 
They  parted  my  garments  among  them, 
And  upon  my  vesture  did  they  cast  lots. 

The  lines  are  from  Ps.  22  :  18.  The  psalm  is 
touch ingly  Messianic  in  many  parts.  Its  opening 
words  were  used  by  our  Lord  on  the  cross.  The  only 
objection  made  to  the  quotation  is  erroneous.  It  is 
stated  thus  by  Toy:  "The  parallelism,  however,  is  not 
a  strict  one  ;  the  soldiers  took  the  garments,  not  out 
of  enmity  to  him  whom  they  crucified,  but  as  custom- 
ary perquisites."  It  is  true  they  took  the  garments  "  as 
customary  perquisites."  But  they  took  them  also  "out 
of  enmity  to  him  whom  they  crucified."  Had  they 
been  his  disciples,  they  would  not  have  taken  them  ; 
and  it  was  therefore  as  sharers  of  the  world's  great 
enmity  to  him  that  they  took  them.  Their  horrible  but 
ignorant  enmity  is  evident  from  Matt.  27  :  27-31,  where 
we  are  told  that  "  the  whole  band  "  of  the  "  soldiers  of 
the  governor"  stripped  him,  crowned  him  with  thorns, 
mocked  him  with  satirical  reverence,  spat  upon  him, 
and  smote  him  on  the  head.  The  psalmist  seems  to 
contemplate  in  a  part  of  his  prayer  persons  who  were 
actuated  by  just  such  popular  and  ignorant  enmity  as 
this,  as  where  he  says  : 

I  am  a  worm,  and  no  man, 

A  reproach  of  men,  and  despised  of  the  people. 

And  the  part  of  the  psalm  from  which  the  lines  are 
taken  by  the  evangelist  is  of  this  kind  : 

The  assembly  of  evil  doers  have  inclosed  mc. 

XIII.  The  quotation   in  John    [9  :  36  is  probably 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  247 

from  Exod.  12  :  46  and  Num.  9:12.  The  soldiers 
did  not  break  the  legs  of  Christ,  "  that  the  Scripture 
might  be  fulfilled,  A  bone  of  him  shall  not  be  broken." 
In  the  passages  referred  to  in  Exodus  and  Numbers 
the  Israelites  are  forbidden  to  "break  a  bone"  of  the 
paschal  lamb.  But  the  paschal  lamb  was  a  most  vivid 
symbol  of  "Christ,  our  passover."  Perhaps  it  was 
to  mark  this  prophetic  character  of  the  paschal  lamb 
that  the  time  of  his  offering  was  that  of  the  Pass- 
over. The  prescription  to  avoid  breaking  a  bone  of 
the  lamb  can  scarcely  be  assigned  any  other  meaning 
than  a  prophetic  one,  which  makes  it  point  to  the  ex- 
emption of  Christ  from  this  cruelty  when  he  was  on 
the  cross.  The  paschal  lamb  as  a  type  of  Christ  is 
referred  to  in  John  1  :  29,  36  ;  1  Cor.  5:751  Peter 
1:19;  and  in  the  Revelation  in  no  less  than  twenty- 
eight  places.  In  preparing  the  lamb  for  roasting, 
the  Jews  ran  spits  through  it  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
as  the  Samaritans  do  to  this  day. 

The  derivation  of  the  quotation  from  these  sources 
is  so  natural  that  no  other  source  need  be  sought.  Yet 
it  is  possible  that  the  evangelist  had  Ps.  34  :  20  also  in 
mind.  This  psalm  celebrates  the  care  of  God  for  the 
righteous  man,  and  says  that, 

He  keepeth  all  his  bones  : 
Not  one  of  them  is  broken. 

The  evangelist  may  have  regarded  these  lines  as  ful- 
filled in  Christ,  who  was  the  only  perfectly  righteous 
man,  the  beloved  son  of  God,  and  the  object  of  his 
most  tender  care  even  when  dying  upon  the  cross. 


248         QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

XIV.  In  Luke  1:17  the  prophecy  of  Mai.  3:1; 
4  :  5,  6  is  referred  to  by  Gabriel  as  about  to  be  ful- 
filled in  the  person  of  John  the  Baptist  :  "  He  shall  go 
before  his  face  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  to 
turn  the  hearts  of  the  fathers  to  the  children,  and  the 
disobedient  to  walk  in  the  wisdom  of  the  just  ;  to 
make  ready  for  the  Lord  a  people  prepared  for  him." 
Elijah  was  thus  a  type  of  the  Baptist.  The  prophecy 
is  interpreted  in  this  typical  sense  also  by  our  Lord 
(Matt.  11  :  14  ;  17  :  10-12  ;  Mark  9  :  1  1-13).  There  is  no 
discrepancy  between  this  view  and  the  express  denial  of 
John  the  Baptist  that  he  was  Elijah  (John  1  :  21,  25); 
for  the  question  of  the  Pharisees  was  asked  in  the  lit- 
eral sense  of  the  words,  and  therefore  required  an  an- 
swer in  the  same  sense. 

XV.  Another  quotation  of  the  kind  now  before  us 
is  found  in  Acts  1  :  20,  from  Ps.  69  :  25  : 

Let  his  habitation  be  made  desolate, 
And  let  no  man  dwell  therein. 

In  the  original  the  plural  number  is  used  : 

Let  their  habitation  be  made  desolate, 
And  let  none  dwell  in  their  tents. 

It  is  changed  by  the  Apostle  Peter  to  the  singular, 
because  the  passage  is  applied  by  him  to  the  betrayer, 
and  this  alteration  is  of  the  first  class  illustrated  in  our 
fourth  chapter.  The  apostle  does  not  say  that  it  was 
written  originally  with  reference  to  Judas  ;  it  denounces 
a  number  of  wicked  men  who  sought  the  destruction 
of  the  psalmist,  and,  through  him,  of  the  reign  of  God 
and   of   righteousness   in    Israel.      But   as  the  psalmist 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  249 

was  a  type  of  Christ,  so  those  whose  sympathy  with 
evil  led  them  to  seek  his  life  were  types  of  Judas  and 
of  all  persecutors.  If  any  one  should  fail  to  perceive 
these  typical  relations,  the  view  expressed  by  Hackett 
may  appear  preferable  : 

When  Peter  declares  that  this  prophecy,  which  he  applies  to 
Judas,  was  spoken  with  special  reference  to  him  (see  ver.  16), 
he  makes  the  impressive  announcement  to  those  whom  he  ad- 
dressed, that  the  conduct  of  Judas  had  identified  him  fully  with 
such  persecutors  of  the  righteous  as  the  psalm  contemplates, 
and  hence  it  was  necessary  that  he  should  suffer  the  doom  de- 
served by  those  who  sin  in  so  aggravated  a  manner. 

But,  considering  the  typical  element  in  general  litera- 
ture, and  its  likeness  to  portions  of  this  psalm,  I  adopt 
the  words  of  Dr.  Lyman  Abbott,  who  holds  the  psalm 
to  contain  prophecies  of  Christ  "  because  David  him- 
self was  a  prophecy  of  the  Messiah,"  and  "  describing 
his  own  literal  experiences,  he  unconsciously  prophesied 
both  the  sufferings  and  triumph  of  the  Messiah."  If 
we  shall  deem  this  typical  view  sustained,  we  shall  not 
regard  the  whole  psalm  as  typical.  Verse  5  certainly  is 
not.  We  have  seen  already  that  it  is  a  characteristic 
of  all  typical  literature  that  the  typical  meanings  appear 
and  disappear,  as  the  writer  wishes. 

XVI.  The  next  quotation,  which  occurs  in  the  same 
verse,  is  of  the  same  typical  character.  It  is  from 
Ps.  109  :  8:  "His  office  let  another  take."  It  is 
usually  interpreted  like  the  preceding,  either  as  an 
imprecation  which  finds  its  fulfillment  in  the  fate  of 
all  the  desperately  wicked,  and  hence  in  the  fate  of 
Judas,  or  as  an  imprecation  of  one  who  was  a  special 


250       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

type  of  the  betrayer.  Gloag1  says  :  "  In  this  psalm 
David  is  supposed  to  refer  to  Doeg,  the  Edomite,  or  to 
Ahithophel.  It  is  the  most  imprecatory  of  all  the 
psalms,  and  may  well  be  termed  the  Iscariot  psalm." 

Another  interpretation,  however,  is  proposed  by 
Kennicott,  Mendelsohn,  and  C.  Taylor,  and  is  adopted 
by  Kuenen,  who  says  : 

The  poet  rather  appears  in  verses  6-19  to  enumerate  the 
curses  which  his  enemies  heap  upon  him,  for  which  reason  also 
the  third  person  singular  is  used  in  these  verses,  while  the  poet's 
enemies  are  always  spoken  of  in  the  plural  (ver.  2-5,  20,  25,  27- 
29).  The  poet,  however,  hurls  back  upon  his  haters  these  male- 
dictions uttered  against  him,  for  to  verses  9-16  he  subjoins  : 

Let  this  be  the  reward  of  my  adversaries  from  Jahveh, 
And  of  those  who  speak  evil  against  my  soul. 

Or,  in  other  words,  May  the  lot  which  they  wish  me  befall 
themselves.  Thus  the  poet  is  not  free  from  vindictiveness  ;  but 
he  has  not  been  guilty  of  devising  those  numerous  and  some- 
times frightful  imprecations  which  precede.  It  needs  no  proof 
to  show  that  Peter,  as  introduced  in  the  Acts  as  speaking,  would 
have  withheld  his  quotation,  if  he  had  been  acquainted  with 
this  interpretation  of  the  psalm,  which  for  the  rest  so  well  de- 
serves to  be  accepted. 

This  interpretation  of  the  psalm  seems  to  me  correct 
in  substance.  The  poet  represents  himself  in  verses 
3-5  as  gentle  and  pacific,  and  contrasts  his  disposition 
with  that  of  his  enemies.  "It  is  almost  inconceivable," 
as  Kuenen  says,  "that  he  should  immediately  there- 
after burst  forth  into  maledictions  of  them."  Be 
sides,  the  maledictions  of  the  enemies  are  referred  to  in 
later  parts  of  the  psalm  (ver.  20,  28),  as  if  they  had 

1  "  (  ommentary  <>n  the   v 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  251 

been  recited  in  the  earlier  part.  Again,  where  he 
speaks  of  his  foes,  the  plural  is  employed,  and  where 
they  speak  of  him,  the  singular.  This  distinction  runs 
through  the  whole  psalm  and  renders  our  interpreta- 
tion almost  necessary.  It  is  no  obj  ection  to  this  view  that 
the  words  of  the  enemies  are  introduced  without  any 
special  formula  of  quotation,  like  "they  say,"  for  such 
an  introduction  of  the  words  of  a  speaker  without  an  in- 
troductory formula  is  not  uncommon  in  Hebrew  poetry. 
(See  for  example  Ps.  22  :  7  ;  2  :  3.) 

In  one  thing  the  interpretation  is  needlessly  harsh. 
It  makes  the  writer  hurl  back  the  imprecations  of  his 
foes,  and  pray  that  they  themselves  may  suffer  the  evils 
they  have  invoked  upon  him.  I  take  verse  20,  how- 
ever, to  be  a  mere  statement  of  fact,  a  prophecy,  and 
not  a  prayer.  Instead  of  rendering  the  verse,  "  Let 
this  be  the  reward  of  mine  adversaries,"  I  should  render 
it,  with  the  revisers  of  the  English  Bible,  "This  is  the 
reward."  That  the  words  are  most  easily  and  natu- 
rally rendered  thus  every  Hebrew  scholar  will  grant ; 
and  if  the  great  majority  render  them  as  a  prayer,  it  is 
because  they  come  to  them  with  a  theory  already  con- 
ceived as  to  what  they  must  mean.  Reading  the 
psalm  in  this  manner,  it  wholly  ceases  to  be  impre- 
catory, while  at  the  same  time  it  states  the  undoubted 
truth  that  curses  recoil  upon  those  who  utter  them. 

This  interpretation  of  the  psalm  would  not  change 
its  relation  to  Judas,  or  forbid  Peter  to  apply  it  to  him, 
as  Kuenen  strangely  affirms.  Does  the  psalmist  in 
verse  20  adopt  the  maledictions  of  his  enemies,  and 
hurl  them  back  ?  Then  they  become  as  much  his  own 
as  if  he  had  uttered  them  himself.      Or  does  he  merely 


252        QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

speak  as  a  prophet,  and  predict  that  their  curses  shall 
fall  on  their  own  heads  ?  Then  the  saying  was  ful- 
filled. In  either  case  Peter  would  use  the  words  ex- 
actly as  he  did.  But  we  are  assured  in  Acts  1:15, 
16,  that  he  took  them  as  a  prophecy  :  "  It  was  needful 
that  the  Scripture  should  be  fulfilled,  which  the  Holy 
Spirit  spake  before  by  the  mouth  of  David  concerning 
Judas."  Of  course,  the  original  fulfillment  was  a  type 
of  their  later  fulfillment  in  the  fate  of  the  traitor,  as 
of  their  repeated  fulfillment  in  the  fate  of  all  malevo- 
lent and  wicked  men. 

XVII.  In  Gen.  17:5  we  have  a  promise  which  the 
Apostle  Paul  at  Rom.  4:17  quotes  as  typical.  It  is 
an  admirable  illustration  of  the  typical  character  of 
much  Old  Testament  history,  for,  even  without  the 
typical  use  of  it  made  by  the  apostle,  the  Christian 
who  believes  that  the  revelation  of  God  to  Abraham 
was  but  a  part  of  his  plan  to  establish  the  kingdom  of 
his  Son,  readily  perceives  its  typical  character.  The 
apostle  in  this  fourth  chapter  of  his  great  epistle  is 
showing  that  the  heirs  of  Abraham  are  not  limited  to 
those  who  observe  the  Mosaic  law.  His  argument  is 
as  follows  :  The  promise  that  Abraham  should  be  the 
father  of  an  innumerable  offspring  was  given  to  him  on 
account  of  his  faith,  and  before  the  covenant  of  cir- 
cumcision (ver.  3;  Gen.  15  :  1-7).  Moreover,  it  was 
not  given  to  him  through  the  Mosaic  law,  but  centu- 
ries before  the  law  was  proclaimed  (ver.  13).  If  only 
those  who  perfectly  obey  the  Mosaic  law  are  heirs  of 
this  promise,  then  none  can  be  heirs;  for  none  per- 
fectly obey  the  law  (ver.  14,  15).  The  promise  of  an 
innumerable   offspring    was   given   to   Abraham   in    an- 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  253 

swer  to  his  faith,  and  not  on  the  impossible  condition 
of  his  perfect  legal  righteousness,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  sure,  and  not  empty  (ver.  16).  As  the 
promise  was  given  to  Abraham  that  he  should  be  the 
father  of  an  innumerable  offspring  in  response  to  his 
faith,  before  circumcision  and  the  law,  so  those  who 
have  a  faith  like  his  are  properly  his  spiritual  descend- 
ants, and  not  those  alone  who  are  circumcised  and 
scrupulously  keep  the  law.  Thus  the  argument  is 
based  upon  historic  facts  with  which  every  Jew  was 
familiar. 

Nor  will  the  Christian  believe  readily  that  the  giving 
of  the  promise  to  Abraham  before  the  covenant  of  cir- 
cumcision was  a  mere  accident.  The  history  of  Abra- 
ham is  a  part  of  the  history  of  redemption,  and  there 
was  a  divine  purpose  in  the  ordering  of  its  events. 
The  blessing  of  God  was  pronounced  upon  faith  before 
the  establishment  of  circumcision  and  the  law,  for  the 
very  reason  that  the  apostle  discovers,  that  faith  might 
have  the  first  emphasis,  and  be  seen  to  be  the  condi- 
tion of  salvation  by  grace. 

At  the  close  of  the  argument  the  apostle  quotes  the 
expression  of  Gen.  17:5:  "I  have  made  thee  a  father 
of  many  nations,"  as  typically  applicable  to  all  Gen- 
tiles and  Jews  who  have  Abrahamic  faith.  The 
immediate  reference  of  the  promise  was  to  the  nations 
other  than  Israel  which  should  spring  from  Abraham, 
such  as  the  Ishmaelites  and  Edomites.  Perhaps  Abra- 
ham himself  at  first  saw  little  more  in  the  words  than 
this.  But  can  any  Christian  believe  that  God  in  all 
his  promises  of  a  numerous  offspring  to  Abraham, 
had   nothing  more  in   mind  than  a  natural  offspring  ? 


V- 


254       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

Was  that  a  worthy  object  of  his  solicitude  to  select  a 
family  out  of  the  world  and  guide  it  by  special  inter- 
ventions and  commit  to  it  his  oracles  ?  Or  did  he  not 
plan  from  the  beginning  to  establish  on  earth  the  holy 
religion  of  his  Son,  and  prepare  for  it  in  all  these  early 
revelations  ?  Did  he  not  purposely  place  in  his  revela- 
tions of  himself  to  the  patriarchs,  types  and  shadows 
that  should  teach  the  more  thoughtful  in  proportion  as 
they  were  able  to  bear  the  light  ?  If  we  condemn  the 
typical  use  of  Old  Testament  history  here  made  by  the 
apostle,  we  must  proceed  upon  a  rule  which  would  con- 
vert the  Old  Testament  into  a  mere  secular  literature, 
with  no  special  manifestation  of  God  in  the  history  it 
contains. 

The  comment  of  Toy  on  this  quotation  is  worthy  of 
reproduction  for  its  extraordinary  view  of  the  Old 
Testament.  This  interpretation  of  the  "  many 
nations,"  he  says,  "  is  in  illustration  of  the  argument 
of  Paul  that  the  promise  to  Abraham  was  not  con- 
ditioned on  circumcision,  and  not  limited  to  the  Jews  : 
a  position  the  reverse  of  that  taken  in  Genesis  and 
elsewhere  in  the  Old  Testament."  This  calls  for  two 
remarks  :  1.  The  position  taken  in  Genesis  is  precisely 
that  stated  by  the  apostle  :  the  book  of  Genesis  assures 
us  that  the  promise  of  an  innumerable  offspring  was 
made  to  Abraham  before  anything  about  circumcision 
was  said  to  him  (Gen.  12  :  2  ;  13  :  14-17  ;  15  :  5).  and 
long  before  the  giving  of  the  law.  2.  The  <  )ld  Testa- 
ment promises  the  extension  of  the  kingdom  of  God 
to  the  Gentiles,  and  that  in  numerous  places,  some  of 
which  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  have  pointed 
out.      Nor  is  there  in  any  of  these  places  a  single  word 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  255 

concerning  the  circumcision  of  the  Gentiles  as  a  con- 
dition of  their  reception.  Indeed,  one  might  almost 
say  that  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament  are  as  free 
from  legalism  as  the  Apootle  Paul  himself.  After  the 
book  of  Joshua  circumcision  is  mentioned  but  twice  in 
the  entire  Old  Testament  (Jer.  4  :  4  ;  9  :  25).  in  tne 
first  of  these  instances  the  prophet  enjoins  spiritual 
and  not  fleshly  circumcision  ;  and  in  the  second  he 
declares  to  the  Jews  that,  though  they  were  circum- 
cised in  the  flesh,  they  should  be  treated  exactly  like 
the  uncircumcised  peoples  about  them,  because  they 
were  not  circumcised  in  heart.  Thus  the  teaching  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  reference  to  this  rite  is  in 
exact  harmony  with  that  of  the  New ;  and  the 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles  contended  not  against  the 
Old  Testament,  but  against  the  rabbis,  in  his  doctrine 
of  circumcision. 

XVIII.  Another  typical  quotation  is  that  of  Ps.  69  : 
22,  23,  in  Rom.  11:9,  10.  Much  of  the  psalm  is  re- 
garded in  the  New  Testament  as  Messianic,  containing, 
as  it  does,  such  lines  as  these  : 

For  the  zeal  of  thine  house  hath  eaten  me  up. 

They  gave  me  also  gall  for  my  meat  ; 

And  in  my  thirst  they  gave  me  vinegar  to  drink. 

If  the  psalmist  in  such  expressions  was  a  prophetic 
type  of  Christ,  his  adversaries  were  types  of  Christ's 
adversaries  ;  and  the  calamities  invoked  upon  the 
wicked  who  hated  the  king  chosen  by  God  of  old,  were 
prophetic  of  the  calamities  which  should  befall  the 
murderers  of  the  King  of  kings,  as  indeed  of  the  fate 
of  all  who  resist  the  divine  will. 


256       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

XIX.  In  I  Cor.  9  :  9,  10,  Deut.  25  :  4  is  quoted, 
and  is  followed  by  a  comment.  The  Apostle  Vnul  is 
teaching  that  the  churches  ought  to  provide  for  the 
support  of  Christian  rn«»iers.  As  one  proof  of  this, 
he  adduces  t^c  prescription  of  the  law  :  "  Thou  shalt 
not  n>"^zle  the  ox  when  he  treadeth  out  the  corn." 
rie  then  adds  :  "  Is  it  for  the  oxen  that  God  careth,  or 
saith  he  it  assuredly  for  our  sake  ?  Yea,  for  our  sake 
it  was  written  :  because  he  that  ploweth  ought  to  plow 
in  hope,  and  he  that  thresheth,  to  thresh  in  hope  of 
partaking."  The  Common  version  and  the  English 
revisers  have  "  altogether,"  instead  of  the  "  assuredly" 
preferred  by  the  American  revisers.  The  Greek  word 
may  mean  either,  and  it  is  a  needless  embarrassment  of 
the  passage  to  give  it  the  harsher  sense. 

The  apostle  does  not  say  that  God  has  no  care  for 
animals  in  general  and  at  any  time  ;  he  knew  the  state- 
ments of  Scripture  to  the  contrary  (Job  38  :  41  ;  Ps. 
147  :  9),  and  specially  the  words  of  his  Lord,  concern- 
ing "the  birds  of  the  heaven,"  in  Matt.  6  :  26  and 
Luke  12  :  24  :  "  Your  heavenly  Father  feedeth  them." 
All  expositors  of  note  hold  that  he  limits  his  view  to 
the  text  immediately  before  him,  and  declares  that  in 
it  God  is  caring  for  men  rather  than  for  oxen.  The 
statement  is  strong,  and  is  not  intended  to  be  inter- 
preted in  a  narrow  and  mechanical  way  ;  it  is  like  the 
words  of  Jesus  :  "  Whosoever  smiteth  thee  on  thy 
right  check,  turn  to  him  the  other  also  "  ;  ««  Whosoever 
shall  compel  thee  to  go  one  mile,  go  with  him  twain  "  ; 
"  II'  any  man  cometh  unto  me  and  hateth  not  Ids  own 
father,  and  mother,  and  wife,  and  children,  and  breth- 
ren, and  sisters,  yea,  and  his  own  life  also,  he  cannot 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  257 

be  my  disciple."  Such  sweeping  statements  are  com- 
mon in  all  literatures,  where  the  writer  is  moved  by- 
great  earnestness,  and  they  are  often  necessary  to  a 
truthful  expression  of  deep  feeling.  English  literature 
abounds  with  them.  I  may  instance  the  speech  of 
Macbeth,  whose  hands  are  stained  with  blood  sufficient 
perhaps  to  tinge  a  basin  of  water,  but  who  cries  out 
that  it  would 

The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine, 
Making  the  green  one  red. 

The  statement,  thus  interpreted,  presents  but  one 
further  question.  Is  it  true  that  in  this  command  God 
regards  man  chiefly  ?  There  are  several  precepts  of 
the  Mosaic  law  touching  humanity  to  animals  which 
carry  this  humanity,  speaking  reverently,  to  an  ex- 
treme, and  must  have  been  designed  to  affect  men, 
since  they  do  not  affect  animals  in  any  direct  manner. 
Such,  for  example,  is  the  law  of  Deut.  22  :  6,  7  :  "If 
a  bird's  nest  chance  to  be  before  thee  in  the  way,  in 
any  tree,  or  on  the  ground,  with  young  ones  or  eggs, 
and  the  dam  sitting  upon  the  young  or  upon  the  eggs, 
thou  shalt  not  take  the  dam  with  the  young  :  thou 
shalt  in  anywise  let  the  dam  go,  but  the  young  thou 
mayest  take  unto  thyself  ;  that  it  may  be  well  with 
thee,  and  that  thou  mayest  prolong  thy  days."  It  is 
difficult  to  see  what  favorable  effect  this  would  have 
upon  the  mother-bird,  as  it  would  bereave  her  of  her 
young,  in  any  case,  and  does  not  forbid  her  capture  at 
another  time.  But  it  would  teach  tenderness  in 
general,  and  especially  toward  women  under  the  bur- 
dens of  maternity,  for  whose  sake  chiefly  it  was  writ- 


258       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

ten.  Such,  again,  is  the  law  thrice  recorded  (Exod. 
23  :  19  ;  34  :  26  ;  Ueut.  14:21):  "  Thou  shalt  not 
seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk  "  It  could  make  no 
difference  either  to  the  dead  kid  or  to  the  living 
mother,  whether  the  dish  were  prepared  in  this  way  or 
not  ;  but  the  precept  may  have  had  much  influence  in 
creating  tenderness  of  feeling  toward  motherhood  in 
general,  and  toward  the  young  ;  and  its  chief  value 
would  consist  in  its  effect  upon  human  beings.  Such 
again  is  the  law  of  Lev.  22  :  28  :  "  Whether  it  be  a 
cow  or  a  ewe,  ye  shall  not  kill  it  and  her  young  both  in 
one  day."  It  could  make  but  little  difference  to  the 
animals  whether  they  were  killed  together,  or  with  an 
interval  of  one  day  between  ;  but  this  precept  would 
affect  the  owner,  and  teach  him  tenderness  of  heart, 
especially  toward  human  mothers  and  their  children. 
Such  also  is  the  law  forbidding  the  muzzling  of  the  ox 
when  it  trod  out  the  grain.  The  precept  affected  the 
ox  but  little,  since  the  process  of  threshing  lasted  but 
a  few  days,  and  a  cruel  owner  would  stint  it  all  the 
year  besides,  while  a  kind  owner  would  iced  it  well  in 
any  case,  even  if  he  muzzled  it  while  it  was  engaged 
at  this  work.  But  the  precept  would  teach  thought- 
fulness  in  general,  and  in  particular  kindness  to  work- 
ing people.  Thus  this  view,  taken  by  the  apostle, 
arises  naturally  from  a  careful  consideration  of  the 
precept  and  of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  These 
laws,  though  they  speak  of  birds  and  beasts,  arc  typi- 
cal of  human  relationships  ;  they  arc  designed  to  fos- 
ter pity  for  the  helpless  of  all  kinds,  whether  animals 
or  men  and  women  and  children;  and  their  value 
would  consist  chiefly  in  their  effect  upon  human  beings, 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  259 

since,  as  our  Saviour  says,  "  How  much  is  a  man  of 
more  value  than  a  sheep  ?  " 

Meyer  regards  the  interpretation  of  the  precept  by 
the  apostle  as  "  typico-allegorical."  It  would  be  better 
to  regard  the  precept  itself  as  typical  and  the  interpre- 
tation as  a  statement  of  its  real  character  in  the  strong 
language  of  deep  conviction  and  earnest  feeling. 

XX.  I  have  discussed  in  another  place  the  quotation 
of  2  Sam.  7  :  14  in  2  Cor.  6:18,  if  the  quotation 
there  is  indeed  from  this  source.  Let  me  notice  the 
more  nearly  literal  quotation  of  the  passage  in  Heb. 
1:5,  where  it  is  considered  as  uttered  by  Jehovah 
with  reference  to  the  Messiah  : 

I  will  be  to  him  a  Father, 
And  he  shall  be  to  me  a  Son. 

The  words  are  a  part  of  the  remarkable  prophecy  of 
Nathan  to  David  touching  Solomon  and  the  Davidic 
dynasty.  The  prophecy  is  strongly  typical  in  struc- 
ture, containing  much  language  which  can  be  applied  to 
the  ordinary  offspring  of  David  only  by  a  strained  and 
unnatural  interpretation,  and  which  finds  an  easy, 
natural,  and  complete  fulfillment  in  that  son  of  David 
who  is  also  the  Son  of  God.  The  words  quoted  were 
immediately  applicable  to  Solomon,  in  so  far  as  he  was 
a  child  of  God  and  moved  by  the  spirit  of  Christ,  as 
they  are  applicable  in  this  sense  to  all  good  people.1 
But  Solomon  was  a  type  of  the  Son  of  God  not  only 
in  so  far  as  he  was  himself  a  child  of  God,  but  also 
externally,   as   the   king  of    Israel   and   the  prince  of 

1  See  discussion  of  them  as  they  are  perhaps  quoted  in  2  Cor.  6  :  1 8. 


26o       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

peace.  The  words,  therefore,  though  spoken  of  the 
earthly  monarch,  glanced  forward  to  the  heavenly,  like 
other  words  of  this  prophecy,  as  for  example  those 
which  declare  that  the  throne  of  the  son  of  David 
shall  be  "  established  for  ever,"  that  the  house  and 
kingdom  of  David  shall  be  "  made  sure  for  ever." 
That  David  himself,  and  other  holy  men  of  old,  regarded 
the  prophecy  as  strongly  Messianic  is  probable  from 
Ps.  89  and  132. 

XXI.  In  Gal.  3  :  16  the  writer  quotes  from  Gen. 
13:15  and  1 7  :  7,  8.  The  effort  to  find  the  quota- 
tion in  other  passages  is  not  successful.  In  these 
places  Moses  records  a  promise  made  to  Abraham  that 
the  land  of  Canaan  should  be  given  to  him  "  and  to  his 
seed  forever.'!^  In  the  New  Testament  generally  the. 
promised  land  is  considered  a  type  of  spiritual  bless- 
ings, and  specially  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  in  its 
completed  state,  so  that  this  application  of  it  here 
need  not  detain  us.      (See  specially  Heb.  1 1.) 

The  comment  of  the  apostle  upon  the  passage  has 
given  rise  to  much  discussion.  It  is  objected  that  the 
stress  of  the  argument  rests  upon  a  minute  point  of 
grammar,  and  that  in  reference  to  this  the  apostle  is 
wrong.  "  He  saith  not,  And  to  seeds,  as  of  many  ; 
but  as  of  one,  And  to  thy  seed,  which  is  Christ."  The 
objector  reminds  us  correctly  that  the  Hebrew  word 
"seed,"  in  the  singular,  is  used  in  the  passage  quoted 
as  a  collective  noun,  with  the  force  of  a  plural  ;  and 
that,  secondly,  had  the  plural,  seeds,  been  used,  it 
would  not  have  meant  offspring,  children,  descendants, 
but  various  kinds  of  seeds.  "  Hut  the  apostle,"  the 
objector   continues,  "  regards  the  singular,  seed,  not   as 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  261 

a  collective  noun,  but  as  referring  to  an  individual,  and 
assumes  that  the  plural,  seeds,  would  have  been  used 
had  more  than  one  individual  been  intended."  The 
grammatical  facts  on  which  this  criticism  is  based  were 
perfectly  well  known  to  the  apostle,  who  in  the  twenty- 
ninth  verse  of  this  very  chapter  uses  the  singular,  seed, 
as  a  collective  noun,  as  also  in  Rom.  1  13;  4  :  16,  18  ; 
9  :  7.  They  were  known  to  his  readers  as  well,  for 
the  argument  was  written  in  Greek,  and  though  they 
were  ignorant  of  Hebrew,  the  same  things  are  true  of 
the  corresponding  Greek  expressions,  as  they  are  also 
of  the  English,  so  that  the  alleged  error  of  argument, 
had  it  existed,  would  have  been  detected  at  once.  The 
objection,  therefore,  which  assumes  that  the  apostle 
was  either  ignorant  of  the  grammatical  points  involved, 
or  made  a  sophistical  representation  of  them,  must  be 
erroneous. 

Two  interpretations  of  this  passage  are  worthy  of 
consideration. 

The  first  is  stated  thus  by  Lightfoot  :  "  He  is  not 
laying  stress  on  the  particular  word  used,  but  on  the 
fact  that  a  singular  noun  of  some  kind,  a  collective 
term,  is  employed,  where  '  children,'  or  '  offspring,'  for 
instance,  might  have  been  substituted.  Avoiding  the 
technical  terms  of  grammar,  he  could  not  express  his 
meaning  more  simply  than  by  the  opposition  :  <  not  to 
thy  seeds,  but  to  thy  seed.'  "  In  other  words,  the 
apostle  regards  it  as  noteworthy  that  any  noun  in  the 
singular  was  used,  even  one  which  has  a  collective 
sense,  instead  of  a  plural. 

According  to  this  intepretation,  the  "seed  "  referred 
to  is  the  personal  Christ,  on  the  ground  that  Israel 


262       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

is  a  type  of  Christ.     The  typical  relation  of  the  two  is 
stated  by  Lightfoot  thus  : 

With  a  true  spiritual  instinct,  though  the  conception  embodied 
itself  at  times  in  strangely  grotesque  and  artificial  forms,  even 
the  rabbinical  writers  saw  that  "  the  Christ"  was  the  true  seed 
of  Abraham.  In  him  the  race  was  summed  up,  as  it  were. 
In  him  it  fulfilled  its  purpose  and  became  a  blessing  to  the 
whole  earth.  Without  him  its  separate  existence  as  a  peculiar 
people  had  no  meaning.  Thus  he  was  not  only  the  representa- 
tive, but  the  embodiment  of  the  race.  In  this  way  the  people  of 
Israel  is  the  type  of  Christ  ;  and  in  the  New  Testament,  parallels 
are  sought  in  the  career  of  the  one  to  the  life  of  the  other.  See 
especially  the  application  of  liosea  1 1  :  i  to  our  Lord  in  Matt. 
2:15.  In  this  sense  St.  Paul  uses  the  "seed  of  Abraham" 
here. 

The  second  interpretation  sees  in  "  the  seed  "  of  this 
quotation  a  collective  noun,  with  the  force  of  a  plural  ; 
for  it  regards  the  "  Christ "  of  this  verse  as,  so  to  speak, 
the  collective  Christ,  the  church,  of  which  Christ  is  the 
Head.      It  is  well  stated  by  Aliord  : 

If  the  word  "Christ"  in  this  verse  imports  only  the  personal 
Christ  Jesus,  why  is  it  not  so  expressed,  Christ  Jesus  ?  For  the 
word  does  not  here  occur  in  passing,  but  is  the  predicate  of  a 
very  definite  and  important  proposition.  The  fact  is  that  we 
must  place  ourselves  in  St.  Paul's  position  with  regard  to  the 
idea  of  Christ,  before  we  can  appreciate  all  he  meant  here. 
Christians  arc,  not  by  a  figure,  but  really,  the  body  of  Christ. 
Christ  contains  his  people,  and  the  mention  even  of  the  personal 
Christ  would  bring  with  it,  in  the  apostle's  mind,  the  inclusion 
of  1 1  i->  believing  people.  This  seed  is  Christ,  not  merely  in  the 
narrower  sense,  the  man  Christ  Jesus,  but  Christ  the  seed,  Christ 
the  second  Adam,  Christ  the  head  of  the  body.  And  that  this 
is  so  is  plain  from  verses  28  and  20,  which  are  the  key  to  "  which 
is  (  hrist"  ;  where  he  says,  "for  all  ye  are  one  in  Christ  Jesus" 
(notice    "Jesus"    here    carefully    inserted,    where   the   per  SO  n   is 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  263 

indicated).  "And  if  ye  are  Christ's,  then  are  ye  Abraham's 
seed,  heirs  according  to  the  promise."  So  that,  while  it  is  nec- 
essary for  the  form  of  the  argument  here,  to  express  Him  to 
whom  the  promises  were  made,  and  not  the  aggregate  of  his 
people,  afterward  to  be  identified  with  him  (but  not  yet  in  view), 
yet  the  apostle  has  introduced  his  name  in  a  form  not  circum- 
scribing his  personality,  but  leaving  room  for  the  inclusion  of  his 
mystical  body. 

This  view  is  justified  by  an  inspection  of  the  whole 
argument  of  the  apostle  in  this  part  of  the  epistle. 
His  proposition  is  that  "  they  which  be  of  faith,  the 
same  are  sons  of  Abraham  "  (ver.  7).  He  proves  this, 
first,  by  an  appeal  to  those  scriptures  which  predict 
that  all  the  nations  shall  be  blessed  in  Abraham,  which 
could  only  be  fulfilled  through  their  faith,  inasmuch  as 
the  law  was  not  for  them  (ver.  8,  9).  He  proves  it 
secondly,  by  the  fact  that  the  law  brings  a  curse  upon 
sinners,  and  not  a  blessing,  since  in  order  to  bring  a 
blessing  it  must  be  perfectly  kept,  a  requirement  which 
no  one  has  ever  fulfilled  (ver.  10).  This  curse  sinners 
can  escape  only  through  faith  in  Christ,  who  has  re- 
deemed them  from  it  (ver.  1 1-14).  He  proves  it  thirdly, 
by  the  fact  that  God  made  a  covenant  with  Abraham, 
based  upon  his  faith,  centuries  before  the  law,  promis- 
ing to  give  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  blessings  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  to  him  and  to  his  seed,  and  that 
the  gracious  Promiser  in  this  solemn  covenant  did  not 
speak  of  all  the  various  sorts  of  offspring  of  Abraham, 
those  by  Ishmael  and  the  sons  of  Keturah,  for  exam- 
ple, but  only  of  one  kind,  the  Christ-kind,  born  of 
faith  (ver.  15,  16).  Nor,  by  implication,  could  this 
promise  be   claimed  by  the  Jews  as  such,  who  were 


264        QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

only  natural  descendants  of  Abraham  ;  but  since  it  was 
made  in  response  to  the  faith  of  the  patriarch,  it  must 
refer  to  him  and  to  those  who  possess  his  spiritual  like- 
ness. Thus  the  argument,  from  beginning  to  end, 
requires  us  to  regard  believers  as  the  "  seed,"  and  the 
"  Christ,"  mentioned  in  verse  16,  as  including  his  people. 
It  would  be  traveling  completely  out  of  the  path  of 
the  argument  to  mention  the  personal  Christ  there, 
except  as  he  is  the  head  and  representative  of  his 
people. 

The  argument  of  the  verse  is  then,  that  in  the  prom- 
ise to  Abraham  God  did  not  use  a  plural  noun,  like 
"sons,"  but  a  collective  noun,  which  had  both  the  force 
of  a  plural  and  a  suggestion  of  unity,  and  showed  that 
the  seed  were  to  be  of  the  same  kind  with  believing 
Abraham,  and  "one  in  Christ  Jesus,"  in  order  to  be 
heirs  of  the  promise.  Conybeare l  says  this  in  sub- 
stance :  "  The  meaning  of  the  argument  is,  that  the 
recipients  of  God's  promises  are  not  to  be  looked  on 
as  an  aggregate  of  different  individuals,  or  of  differ- 
ent races,  but  are  all  one  body,  whereof  Christ  is  the 
head." 

We  may  also  adopt  the  sentiment  of  Farrar2:  "In 
the  interpretation  then  of  this  word,  St.  Paul  reads  be- 
tween the  lines  of  the  original,  and  is  enabled  to  see 
in  it  deep  meanings,  which  are  the  true  but  not  the 
primary  ones."  But  when  he  says  that  the  reference 
is  "purely  illustrative,"  we  may  hesitate  to  follow  him. 
For  the  choice  of  the  singular  noun  in  Gen.  17:8.  in- 
stead of  a  plural,  is  not  without  significance,  even  to 

'  "  Life  and  Epistles  <>f  St.  Paul,"  Vol   II.,  p.  142,  note  1. 
2  "  Lite  and  Work  of  St.  Paul,"  Vol.  I.,  p.  53. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  265 

the  historic  interpreter,  who  seeks  its  primary  meaning, 
with  no  thought  of  the  uses  here  made  of  it.  In  the 
preceding  part  of  the  chapter  God  promises  that  Abra- 
ham shall  be  a  "father  of  a  multitude  of  nations." 
This  is  repeated  thrice,  to  make  it  emphatic,  and  it 
refers  to  all  those  peoples  who  should  descend  from 
him  through  his  other  sons  as  well  as  through  Isaac, 
"the  heir  of  the  promise."  Then  he  turns  from  this 
wider  offspring  to  the  narrower,  the  Jewish,  and  prom- 
ises to  this  branch  a  special  covenant,  and  the  Holy 
Land.  The  transition  from  the  wider  prospect  to  the 
narrower  is  made  by  a  transition  from  plural  nouns  to 
singular  nouns.  Immediately  before,  he  had  spoken 
of  "nations."  Had  he  continued  to  speak  of  them,  or 
had  he  said  "sons,"  in  the  plural,  he  would  have  re- 
ferred to  all  the  offspring  of  the  patriarch  before  men- 
tioned ;  but  by  using  the  singular,  "  seed,"  he  limits 
attention  to  the  descendants  of  Isaac,  in  the  line  of 
Israel.  It  is  on  this  turn  of  language  that  the  apostle 
bases  his  argument  ;  it  leads  to  the  thought,  not  of 
various  kinds  of  peoples,  but  of  unity,  of  one.  The 
rest  is  typical ;  the  natural  Israel  representing  the 
spiritual,  and  the  earthly  Canaan,  "  the  inheritance  of 
the  saints."  The  passage  itself  bears  marks  of  this 
typical  character,  as  Gosman1  has  said  :  "  The  '  ever- 
lasting covenant  '  and  '  everlasting  possession '  show 
that  the  covenant  and  promised  inheritance  included 
the  spiritual  seed  and  the  heavenly  Canaan." 

Those  who  insist  with  a  certain  joy  that  the  apostle 
means  in  this  place  only  Christ,  the  person,  and  not 

1  In  Lange's  "  Genesis.1' 
X 


266       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

Christ,  the  Head  of  the  Church,  and  hence  that  he  has 
made  a  mistake  in  his  interpretation  of  the  word 
"  seed  "  as  employed  in  the  promise  which  he  quotes, 
should  reflect  that  he  explains  himself  in  the  closing 
verse  of  the  chapter :  "  If  ye  are  Christ's  then  are  ye 
Abraham's  seed."  It  cannot  be  supposed  that  the 
apostle  would  strongly  insist  upon  a  narrow  interpreta- 
tion of  the  word  seed,  and  try  to  show  that  it  means  only 
Christ  as  an  individual,  and  then  forget  himself  immedi- 
ately and  give  it  another  significance.  The  two  verses 
state  the  same  thing  ;  and  the  more  obscure  is  to  be 
explained  in  the  light  of  the  later  and  clearer  expres- 
sion. 

I  am  much  indebted  to  Prof.  S.  Burnham,  d.  d.,  of 
Colgate  University,  for  the  following  view  of  the  pas- 
sage, which  is  a  modification  of  that  which  I  have  just 
presented,  or  perhaps  I  should  say,  a  clearer  statement 
of  it. 

The  objection  made  to  the  use  of  the  quotation 
by  the  apostle  is  that  the  word  seeds,  in  the  plural, 
both  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek,  means  different  kinds 
of  seed,  and  not  grains  of  the  same  kind  of  seed. 
This  fact,  which  is  used  to  criticise  the  apostle,  Prof. 
Burnham  uses  to  explain  and  justify  his  argument. 
The  plural  means  different  kinds  of  seeds.  The  singu- 
lar, therefore,  must  mean  a  kind  of  seed,  and  not  a 
single  grain  : 

The  singular  never  denotes,  either  in  Hebrew  or  Greek*  .t 
single  seed.  It  is  always  and  everywhere  .1  collective  mum.  It 
therefore  necessarily  means  ;i  kind  of  seed  in  every  instance, 
for  all  the  seed  which  comes  from  one  common  soun  e,  and  can 
therefore  be  denoted  1>>  a  colle  live  noun,  can  only  be  .1  kind  of 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  267 

seed.  Again,  because  a  collective  noun,  the  word  is  rarely 
used  in  the  plural.  We  have  it,  however,  in  1  Sam.  8  :  1  5  in 
the  plural,  where  the  meaning  must  be  kinds  of  seed,  and  the 
singular  must  therefore  necessarily  mean  a  kind  of  seed. 

Having  fixed  in  our  minds  the  definition  of  the 
Hebrew  and  Greek  plural  as  different  kinds  of  seed, 
and  of  the  singular  as  one  kind  of  seed,  let  us  con- 
sider how  the  readers  of  the  epistle  would  understand 
the  argument.  The  Galatians  already  believed  that 
Christ  was  the  true  seed  of  Abraham,  in  whom  the 
great  blessings  promised  to  the  patriarch  must  come 
to  the  world.  But  the  Jewish  teachers  from  Jerusalem 
had  been  seeking  to  bring  the  Gentile  converts  to 
believe  that  they  must  become  a  part  of  the  national 
descendants  of  Abraham  in  addition,  in  order  to  have 
part  in  the  blessings  promised  to  the  father  of  the 
faithful.  Now,  says  the  apostle,  this  cannot  be  true, 
for  the  blessings  promised  were  to  come,  not  to  two 
kinds  of  seed,  or  to  many  kinds  of  seed,  but  only  to 
one  kind.  If  the  believers  in  Christ  are,  as  you  admit, 
the  seed  of  Abraham  according  to  faith,  and  blessings 
are  to  come  to  them  because  they  are  in  Christ,  then 
nothing  more  is  necessary  on  their  part  to  secure  this 
blessing,  for  they  are  already  a  seed  of  Abraham,  and 
are  indeed,  since  you  hold  that  one  must  be  in  Christ 
to  receive  the  blessings  promised  to  Abraham,  the  seed 
of  Abraham.  Now,  unless  you  are  prepared  to  reject 
Christ  altogether  as  the  source  of  the  blessings  prom- 
ised to  Abraham,  you  cannot  think  it  necessary  to 
enter  into  the  national  seed  of  Abraham,  for  the  prom- 
ises were  made  to  one  kind  of  seed,  and  not  to  two  or 
more  kinds.      You  cannot  therefore  hold  to  the  neces- 


268       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

sity  of  belonging  to  both  kinds  of  seeds  at  once.  You 
must  either  give  up  Christianity,  and  hold  that  a  spirit- 
ual relationship  to  Christ  is  not  essential,  or  you  must 
accept  faith  in  Christ  as  the  only  condition  of  the 
blessings  of  God,  for  the  line  of  the  blessings  is  a 
single,  and  not  a  double  line. 

Godet '  expresses  a  similar  view  of  the  passage  : 

Here  St.  Paul  draws  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  promise 
made  to  Abraham  referred  to  one  seed,  not  to  many.  Many 
interpreters  have  imagined  that  Paul  means  to  point  here  to 
Christ  himself  as  the  one  seed,  in  opposition  to  the  multitude  of 
individuals  composing  the  Israelitish  nation,  as  though  Paul  was 
ignorant  of  the  collective  sense  of  the  Hebrew  term  which  signi- 
fies posterity.  But  it  is  enough  to  read  Rom.  4  :  u,  12,  16  ; 
and  9  :  6-8,  in  order  to  be  convinced  that  Paul  knows  and  ap- 
plies the  collective  sense  of  the  term  used  both  in  Hebrew  and 
Greek.  The  opposition  which  he  brings  out  in  the  verses  before 
us  is  not  between  the  Christ  as  an  individual  and  the  multitudes 
of  the  Jewish  people,  but  between  the  spiritual  seed  of  faith, 
which  alone  is  heir  to  the  promises,  and  other  lines  of  Abra- 
ham's descendants,  of  an  altogether  different  character,  espe- 
cially that  to  which  his  adversaries  referred,  the  seed  of  Abraham 
according  to  the  flesh,  that  is,  the  Jewish  people  as  such.  God, 
in  making  his  promise  to  Abraham,  had  not  contemplated  for  a 
moment  two  seeds  different,  but  both  equally  legitimate,  the  one 
by  faith,  the  other  by  the  flesh,  two  hostile  families  of  justified 
and  saved  ones.  He  had  ever  contemplated  but  one  seed,  the 
characteristic  of  which  is  the  ever  fresh  reproduction  of  the  faith 
of  Abraham,  and  which  is  all  virtually  contained  in  Christ,  who 
is  the  Head  of  which  it  is  the  body  (3  :  15-18).  This  interpre- 
tation is  brought  out  very  clearlj  in  Rom.  9  :  6-S. 

Let  us  read  the  argument  of  the  apostle  in  the  light 
of   this   explanation  :    "  Now   to    Abraham    were   the 

1 "  Studies  on  the  I  piitles,"  p.  46. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  269 

promises  spoken,  and  to  his  kind  of  seed.  He  saith 
not,  and  to  various  kinds  of  seed,  as  of  many  ;  but  as 
of  one,  and  to  thy  kind  of  seed,  which  is  Christ."  If 
the  readers  of  the  epistle  understood  the  word  "seed  " 
in  this  manner,  they  would  necessarily  regard  Christ 
in  the  passage  as  the  seed  of  Abraham  in  the  sense 
that  he  is  the  head  and  representative  of  his  people. 
They  would  not  think  so  much  of  Christ  the  person, 
as  of  Christ  "  the  kind  of  seed  "  contemplated  in  the 
promise.  The  "  kind  of  seed  "  is  not  that  of  ordinary 
generation  ;  but  it  is  the  "  Christ-kind,"  the  spiritual, 
the  offspring  of  faith,  such  as  the  Galatian  Christians 
already  were. 

XXII.  We  have  in  Heb.  6  :  13-19  a  quotation  of 
Gen.  22  :  16,  17,  which  casts  light  on  the  preceding 
discussion. 

"  When  God  made  promise  to  Abraham,  since  he 
could  swear  by  none  greater,  he  sware  by  himself,  say- 
ing, Surely  blessing  I  will  bless  thee,  and  multiplying 
I  will  multiply  thee.  And  thus,  having  patiently 
endured,  he  obtained  the  promise.  For  men  swear  by 
the  greater  ;  and  in  every  dispute  of  theirs  the  oath  is 
final  for  confirmation.  Wherein  God,  being  minded  to 
show  more  abundantly  unto  the  heirs  of  the  promise 
the  immutability  of  his  counsel,  interposed  with  an 
oath  ;  that  by  two  immutable  things,  in  which  it  is 
impossible  for  God  to  lie,  we  may  have  a  strong  encour- 
agement who  have  fled  for  refuge  to  lay  hold  of  the 
hope  set  before  us." 

The  quotation  is  made  somewhat  freely,  for  it  was 
one  of  the  commonplaces  of  Jewish  teaching,  and 
would  be  familiar  to  those  for  whom  the  epistle  was 


270        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

written.  A  reference  to  the  original  passage  will  show 
that  the  memory  of  the  reader  was  appealed  to. 
There,  Jehovah  speaks  in  the  form  of  an  oath,  saying, 
"  By  myself  have  I  sworn,"  a  phrase  omitted  in  the 
epistle,  though  the  argument  is  based  upon  it,  because 
it  was  familiar  to  the  readers.  Another  omission  is 
made  :  God  said,  "  I  will  multiply  thy  seed."  The 
writer  quotes  him  as  saying,  "  I  will  multiply  thee." 
This  is  probably  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  as  is  held  by 
Delitzsch  ;  and  indeed  the  two  expressions  convey  the 
same  essential  idea.  But  the  writer  proceeds  to  apply 
the  quotation  on  the  assumption  that  "  we  who  have 
fled  for  refuge,"  we  Christians,  are  the  true  "  seed  " 
promised  to  Abraham,  and  hence  the  true  "  inheritors 
of  the  promise  "  confirmed  by  an  oath.  The  passage 
quoted  is  similar  to  those  referred  to  by  the  Apostle 
Paul  in  the  preceding  case,  and  the  view  of  the  true 
"  seed  of  Abraham  "  is  the  same  which  the  Apostle 
Paul  expresses  there.  The  oath  to  "  multiply  Abra- 
ham," is  truly  and  finally  fulfilled,  not  in  his  natural 
posterity,  but  in  those  who  have  his  faith,  his  charac- 
ter, the  lineaments  of  his  spiritual  being. 

XXI II.  Among  the  quotations  made,  according  to 
Kuenen,  with  reference  to  the  sound  of  the  words 
rather  than  the  meaning,  is  that  of  Ps.  102  :  25-27 
in  lleb.  1   :  10-12,  beginning  with  the  lines: 

Thou,  Lord,  in  the  beginning  hast  laid  the  foundation  of  the 

earth, 
And  the  heavens  arc  the  works  of  thy  hand. 

Kuenen  writes  : 

In  this  case,  it  is  difficult  even  to  say  what  has  led  the  writer 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  271 

to  this  interpretation.  May  it  have  been  the  word  "Lord"  at 
the  beginning  of  the  citation,  a  word  which  had  gradually 
become  among  Christians  the  regular  title  of  Jesus  ?  But  the 
word  is  not  in  the  Hebrew  ;  it  is  found  only  in  the  Septuagint, 
from  which  the  quotation  is  made. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  psalm  was  addressed  to 
Jehovah,  and  not  to  Jesus  as  distinct  from  Jehovah. 
But  its  application  to  the  Messiah  was  induced  by  no 
such  puerile  and  shallow  occasion  as  the  sound  of  the 
word  "  Lord  "  in  the  Septuagint.  A  glance  at  the 
psalm  itself  will  show  why  it  is  thus  applied  ;  for 
it  is  distinctively  Messianic  in  those  parts  which  re- 
fer to  the  future  action  of  God  in  saving  men.  In 
the  first  eleven  verses  the  writer  depicts  his  own  con- 
dition as  pitiable  in  the  extreme.  From  the  twelfth 
verse  to  the  end  he  assumes  a  more  hopeful  tone,  and 
at  the  same  time  shows  that  his  sufferings  are  those  of 
his  people  at  large,  for  whom  he  speaks  as  their  repre- 
sentative. The  psalm  was  probably  written,  therefore, 
during  the  Babylonian  captivity,  or  soon  after  it,  and 
the  predictions  of  future  deliverance  refer  primarily  to 
the  return  of  the  nation  from  exile  or  the  escape  from 
the  distresses  immediately  succeeding  it.  But  the 
view  of  the  prophet  sweeps  far  beyond  this  period,  and 
his  expressions  depict  a  future  more  glorious  than  the 
restoration  of  the  tribes  to  their  own  land,  or  than  the 
highest ,  prosperity  which  they  attained  afterward. 
"  The  nations,"  the  Gentiles,  are  to  "  fear  the  name  of 
Jehovah,  and  the  kings  of  the  earth  his  glory."  "  The 
peoples,"  the  Gentiles  again,  are  to  "  be  gathered 
together,  and  the  kingdoms  to  serve  Jehovah."  Even 
after  the  heavens  and  the  earth  have  passed  away,  the 


272         QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

children  of  God  "  shall  continue,  and  their  seed  shall 
be  established."  The  psalm,  thus,  is  typical,  looking 
to  the  return  of  national  prosperity,  and  making  this 
the  foreshadowing  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah,  in 
its  universal  extent  and  its  eternal  duration.  Jehovah 
should  accomplish  all  this,  the  Jehovah  who  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  earth,  who  formed  the  heavens  with 
his  hands,  who  shall  remove  all  these  his  works,  and 
who  shall  endure  forever  after  they  are  destroyed. 
The  psalmist  looked  forward  to  what  Jehovah  would 
do  ;  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  back  to  what  he  had 
done  ;  the  one  beheld  Jehovah,  the  other  Christ  ;  they 
are  therefore  essentially  one  and  the  same  being, 
according  to  the  uniform  teaching  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  quotation  is  quite  legitimate,  based  as  it  is 
upon  the  typical  character  of  the  psalm,  which  no  one 
would  fail  to  recognize  were  it  a  German  or  a  Greek 
poem,  and  on  the  Christian  revelation  of  the  deity  of 
the  Son  of  God. 

XXIV.  The  incredible  eagerness  of  Kuenen  to 
fasten  blame  upon  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
is  illustrated  in  his  criticism  of  the  quotation  of  Ps. 
40  :  7,  8  in  Ileb.  10  :  7.      The  psalmist  wrote  : 

Then  said  I,  Lo,  I  am  come  ; 

In  the  roll  of  the  book  it  is  written  of  me  : 

I  delight  to  do  thy  will,  0  my  God. 

The  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  quotes  as 

follows  : 

Then  said  I,  Lo,  1  am  <  ome 

(In  the  roll  of  the  hook  it  is  written  of  me) 
To  do  tliv  will,  <  1  I  tod. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  273 

The  alteration  complained  of  is  the  omission  of  the 
words  "  I  delight  "  in  the  eighth  verse.  Kuenen  holds 
that  it  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  showing  a  distinct 
and  strong  contrast  between  the  "  sacrifice  and  offer- 
ing" just  mentioned  and  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  to 
take  their  place  by  doing  the  divine  will.  "  In  the  poem 
itself,"  he  writes,  "the  antithesis  is  not  so  absolute." 
But  the  antithesis  in  the  psalm,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  as 
absolute  as  language  can  make  it.  The  psalmist  de- 
clares that  God  has  no  delight  in  sacrifice  and  offering 
as  such,  nor  has  he  required  burnt-offering  and  sin- 
offering  as  such.  Obedience  to  these  prescriptions  of 
the  law  is  valuable  only  as  the  person  is  offered  to  God 
a  living  sacrifice.  Perceiving  this,  he  cries  :  "I  give  my- 
self, instead  of  these  ;  and  I  give  myself  gladly  ;  for 
I  delight  to  do  thy  will."  The  substitution  of  glad 
spiritual  service  for  the  mere  outer  rites  and  ceremonies 
of  the  Mosaic  religion  is  thus  complete.  All  critics,  of 
all  schools,  recognize  this  contrast  ;  and  even  Kuenen, 
were  he  commenting  on  the  psalm,  would  say  that  it 
is  the  center  and  heart  of  the  entire  composition. 
But  while  the  antithesis  in  the  psalm  as  a  whole  is 
as  absolute  as  language  can  make  it,  perhaps  it  is 
not  perfectly  clear  in  the  brief  sentences  quoted ; 
and  hence  the  slight  change  in  the  form  of  the  eighth 
verse,  to  bring  out  the  real  meaning  of  the  writer — 
a  method  of  quoting  that  is  illustrated  in  our  fourth 
chapter. 

The  passage  was  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  Messianic. 
Its  application  to  Christ  is  based  upon  the  typical  rela- 
tion of  the  writer  to  him,  and  on  the  special  conform- 
ing of  the  language  to  the  history,  the  purpose,  and  the 


274       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

effect  of  his  mission  to    the  world.      Alexander    has 
well  said  : 

David,  or  any  other  individual  believer  under  the  old  econ- 
omy, was  bound  to  bring  himself  as  an  oblation,  in  completion 
or  in  lieu  of  his  external  gifts  ;  but  such  self-devotion  was  pecu- 
liarly important  upon  Christ's  part,  as  the  real  sacrifice,  of  which 
those  rites  were  only  figures.  The  failure  of  any  indvidual  to 
render  this  essential  offering  ensured  his  own  destruction.  But 
if  Christ  had  failed  to  do  the  same,  all  his  followers  must  have 
perished.  It  is  not,  therefore,  an  accommodation  of  the  pas- 
sage to  a  subject  altogether  different,  but  an  exposition  of  it  in 
its  highest  application,  that  is  given  in  Heb.  10  :  5-10. 

XXV.  I  shall  consider  now  the  prophecy  of  Christ 
in  Deut.  18  :  15-19  : 

"Jehovah,  thy  God,  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet 
from  the  midst  of  thee,  of  thy  brethren,  like  unto  me  ; 
unto  him  ye  shall  hearken  ;  according  to  all  that  thou 
desiredst  of  Jehovah  thy  God  in  Horeb  in  the  day  of 
the  assembly,  saying,  Let  me  not  hear  again  the  voice 
of  Jehovah  ray  God,  neither  let  me  see  this  great  fire 
any  more,  that  I  die  not.  And  Jehovah  said  unto  me, 
They  have  well  said  that  which  they  have  spoken.  I 
will  raise  them  up  a  prophet  from  among  their  brethren, 
like  unto  thee;  and  I  will  put  my  words  in  his  mouth, 
and  he  shall  speak  unto  them  all  that  I  shall  command 
him.  Anil  it  shall  come  to  pass,  that  whosoever  will  not 
hearken  unto  my  words  which  he  shall  speak  in  my 
name,  I  will  require  it  of   him." 

In  the  next  verse  Moses  condemns  false  prophets,  and 
in  the  two  following  verses  lavs  down  a  method  of  dis- 
tinguishing true  prophets  from  pretenders.  His  prom- 
1  e  inverses  1 5  [9  is  of  "a  prophet,"  in  the  singular, 

and    hence  many  critics  regard  it  as  a  direct  prediction 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  275 

of  Christ ;  but  his  warnings  and  his  instructions  in 
the  subsequent  verses  seem  to  contemplate  an  order 
of  prophets,  and  hence  some  hold  that  the  words 
"a  prophet  like  unto  me,"  are  "used  collectively, 
the  reference  being  to  the  whole  line  of  prophets." 
This  division  of  the  critics  is  determined  largely  by 
their  theological  sympathies,  the  more  conservative 
in  general  taking  the  first  view,  and  the  more  radical 
the  second.  I  follow  the  former.  It  seems  to  me 
natural  that  Moses  should  look  at  the  great  Prophet, 
the  Head  of  the  order,  and  then  at  others  who  might 
claim  to  participate  partially  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy  ; 
but  not  natural  that  he  should  say  "  a  prophet  like 
unto  me,"  when  he  meant  the  whole  number  of  his 
successors.  The  controversy,  however,  is  of  little  im- 
portance. Let  us  grant  that  Moses  refers  to  the  entire 
order  of  prophets.  They  are  then  a  type  of  the  su- 
preme Prophet,  who  has  brought  us  the  complete 
expression  of  the  divine  nature  and  the  divine  will. 
The  language  of  Moses  is  singular,  and  not  plural,  be- 
cause the  Holy  Spirit  would  direct  us  thus  to  the  One 
Prophet  of  whom  the  others  are  "  but  broken  lights." 

The  prophecy  is  quoted  by  Peter  at  Acts  3  :  22,  23, 
and  by  Stephen  at  Acts  7  :  37.  By  neither  is  it  de- 
clared either  direct  or  typical.  Indeed,  there  is  no  in- 
stance in  the  whole  New  Testament  in  which  a  writer 
distinguishes  any  prophecy  as  belonging  to  one  of  these 
classes  or  to  the  other.  The  direct  prophecies  and  the 
indirect  are  alike  quoted  simply  as  prophecies.  Hence 
Toy  is  wrong  when,  after  deciding  that  the  passage 
refers  only  indirectly  to  Christ,  he  adds  that  in  the 
Acts  it  "is  regarded  as  a  direct  historical  prediction." 


2j6       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

These  distinctions  of  prophecies  are  useful,  but  they 
are  chiefly  modern,  and  they  are  entirely  foreign  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

XXVI.  We  now  approach  a  quotation  which  has 
occasioned  perhaps  more  debate  than  any  other.  It  is 
Isa.  7  :  14  as  reproduced  in  Matt.  1  :  22,  23  : 

Now  all  this  is  come  to  pass,  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which 
was  spoken  by  the  Lord  through  the  prophet,  saying, 

Behold,  the  virgin  shall  be  with  child,  and  shall  bring  forth 

a  son, 
And  they  shall  call  his  name  Immanuel ; 

which  is,  being  interpreted,  God  with  us. 

There  are  four  views  of  this  passage  which  seem  to 
me  worthy  of  consideration.  The  first  is  held  by  such 
scholars  as  Kwald  and  Cheyne.  It  is  that  Isaiah  ex- 
pected the  Messiah  to  come  immediately.  Hence  "  the 
maiden "  is  his  mother,  and  the  passage  is  a  direct 
Messianic  prophecy.  Those  who  hold  that  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  were  mistaken  as  to  the  time 
of  our  Lord's  second  advent  will  have  no  difficulty  in 
holding  that  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
mistaken  as  to  the  time  of  his  first  advent.  I  will  add 
that  both  suppositions  appear  to  me  utterly  without 
warrant. 

The  second  view  is  applied  to  many  other  passages 
as  well  ;  it  is  that  which  Dr.  Leonard  Woods  has  stated 
and  det ended  with  much  ability.1 

The  phrase  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  2  and  other  phrases  of 
the  like-  kind,  are  indeed  used,  and  very  properly,  to  introduce  a 
real  prediction  winch  is  accomplished,  hut  nut  for  this  purpose 
1  Jn  his  "  Lecture  on  the  Quotations,"  Andover,  1824. 

J  iva  nArjpuiOfi. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  277 

only.  They  are  often  used,  and  with  equal  propriety,  I  say  not 
in  the  way  of  accommodation,  because  that  word,  unhappily, 
has  been  employed  by  certain  writers  to  express  a  doctrine 
which  I  think  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  character  of  Christ 
and  his  apostles,  but  to  denote  a  mere  comparison  of  similar 
events,  to  signify  that  the  thing  spoken  of  answers  to  the  words 
of  the  prophet,  or  that  his  words  may  be  justly  applied  to  it  ; 
and  so  they  may  relate  to  what  was  said  by  an  inspired  writer  in 
describing  a  character  which  formerly  appeared,  or  in  relating 
an  event  which  formerly  took  place,  as  well  as  to  a  real  predic- 
tion. Accordingly,  we  might  take  a  passage  where  it  is  said 
that  such  a  thing  was  done  ' '  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which 
was  spoken  by  the  prophet,"  or  that  what  was  spoken  by  the 
prophet  "was  fulfilled,"  and  might,  in  many  instances,  express 
the  same  thing  by  such  phrases  as  these  :  The  declaration  of  the 
prophet  had  an  accomplishment  in  what  took  place  ;  or,  his 
words  may  be  aptly  applied  to  it  ;  or,  they  very  properly  ex- 
press it  ;  or,  his  observation  is  true  in  reference  to  the  present 
case  ;  or,  this  thing  is  like  what  the  prophet  describes.  Accord- 
ing to  this  view  the  passages  referred  to  are  cited  in  the  way  of 
illustration.  And  a  thorough  attention  to  the  subject  will  con- 
vince you  that  this  mode  of  illustrating  and  impressing  the  truth 
was  very  common  at  the  time  the  New  Testament  was  written, 
and  indeed  is  common  at  the  present  time,  and  is  obviously 
proper  at  all  times. 

This  opinion  Dr.  Woods  seeks  to  prove  by  various 
considerations,  but  chiefly  by  an  appeal  to  several  pas- 
sages of  the  New  Testament  where,  he  affirms,  the 
phrases  in  question  cannot  be  understood  in  any  other 
manner,  and  also  by  an  appeal  to  the  lexicons.  Some 
of  the  passages  from  the  Old  Testament  introduced 
into  the  New  with  these  phrases,  he  maintains,  are  not 
in  their  nature  prophecies,  nor  are  they  quoted  as 
prophecies.  Some  of  the  older  lexicons,  as  Schleusner, 
sustain  his  view ;  but   the   later  reject   it.     All  agree 

Y 


278       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

that  the  words  in  secular  Greek  might  have  the  force 
assigned  to  them  by  Dr.  Woods  ;  but  it  is  denied  that 
this  sense  ever  belongs  to  them  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment.1 There  are,  however,  certain  fashions  in  lexi- 
cography, as  in  every  other  study ;  and  perhaps  the 
discussion  is  not  yet  at  an  end. 

This  interpretation  of  the  words  "  That  it  might  be 
fulfilled,"  is  rejected  by  Tholuck,  who,  however,  pre- 
serves all  that  is  valuable  in  it,  while  assigning  a  full 
and  natural  sense  to  the  phrase  in  question : 

It  may  be  shown  convincingly,  that  neither  the  Redeemer 
himself  nor  his  apostles  have  proceeded  on  so  rigid  an  idea  of 
prophecy  as  has  been  attributed  to  them  by  a  far  too  material 
supranaturalism.  Only  a  few  persons  still  retain  the  idea  of 
prophecy  in  its  ancient  rigidness.  Even  in  popular  works,  such 
as  Otto  von  Gerlach's  Commentary  on  Matt.  2:16,  we  find  the 
following  anti-material  description  of  prophecy:  "The  wind 
'  fulfill,'  in  this  and  other  passages,  is  not  to  be  understood  as  if 
the  words  quoted  contained  a  prophecy  which  was  verified 
merely  in  the  instance  adduced.  Rather,  we  should  say  every 
divine  expression  contains  a  meaning  which  is  fulfilled  when 
that  takes  place  which  it  expresses,  either  on  a  smaller  or  larger 
scale.  Hence  all  the  words  of  God,  which  collectively  are  in  a 
certain  sense  prophecies,  as  long  as  the  kingdom  of  God  had 
not  yet  appeared,  always  become  gradually  fulfilled,  and  with 
increasing  brightness,  because  the  primary  fulfillment  is  typical 
of  a  subsequent  one."  This  more  spiritual  idea  of  prop 
shows  itself  also  in  this,  that  one  and  the  same  word  of  promise 
i^  applied  freely  to  manifold  and  different  phenomena,  which 
yet  can  be  ranged  under  one  idea.  The  aged  Simeon  finds  the 
prophecy  of  Isaiah,  "  A  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles"  (Luke  2  : 

1  The  examples  hum  secular  Creek  are  given  al  Bome  lengtfa  by  Palfrey, 
in  his  "Relation  between  Judaism  and  Christianity,"  \>.  28.     See  the 
ophocles  and  in  Thayer,     Toy,  in  his  "  Quotations,"  admits 
that  tin:  older  opinion  may  possibly  Ik-  correct. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  279 

32),  fulfilled  in  the  child  Jesus  ;  but  Paul,  knowing  that  the 
apostles  were  the  conveyers  of  that  light,  finds  its  fulfillment  in 
the  apostles  (Acts  13  :  47).  When  Peter,  in  Acts  2  :  17-21, 
explains  the  language  of  Joel  as  fulfilled  in  the  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  it  certainly  was  not  his 
meaning  that  the  prophecy  he  quoted  was  fulfilled  in  that  event 
only  ;  indeed,  what  he  says  of  natural  phenomena  (ver.  19,  20), 
was  not  at  that  time  literally  fulfilled.  No  doubt  Peter  employed 
the  words  of  Joel  in  the  same  manner  in  which  he  quoted  the 
words  of  Christ,  "Ye  shall  be  baptized  in  the  Holy  Spirit,"  at 
the  effusion  of  the  Spirit  on  Cornelius  (Acts  11  :  16).  He  was 
well  aware  that  this  promise  of  the  Redeemer  related  primarily 
to  the  apostles  ;  but  on  another  occasion,  which  harmonized 
in  idea  with  the  effusion  of  the  Spirit  on  the  apostles,  this  word 
of  the  Lord's  was  realized  afresh.  So  also  those  expressions  of 
Isaiah  respecting  the  hardening  of  the  hearts  of  the  people. 
The  same  passage  is  four  times  quoted  in  the  New  Testament 
on  different  occasions  (Matt.  13  :  14;  John  12  :  40;  Acts  28  : 
26  ;  and  Rom.  11  :  8)  ;  and  even  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
island  of  Thule  the  apostles  would  have  had  no  hesitation  in 
saying,  "In  you  is  fulfilled  the  word  spoken  by  the  prophet," 
in  case  the  state  of  their  dispositions  corresponded  with  that  to 
which  Isaiah  refers.  In  this  manner  we  would  explain  1  Peter 
1  :  25,  where  the  prophetic  expression,  "  The  word  of  the  Lord 
abideth  forever,"  is  boldly  explained  as  referring  to  the  gospel, 
in  the  words,  "  And  this  is  the  word  of  good  tidings  which  was 
preached  unto  you."  The  freedom  with  which,  in  these  in- 
stances, reference  is  made  to  the  expressions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, is  equally  applied  to  the  form  of  the  citations,  when 
Christ  in  John  6  :  45,  in  order  to  prove  that  the  Father  inwardly 
teaches  men,  adduces  the  prophetic  saying,  "  They  shall  all  be 
taught  of  God,"  with  the  general  expression,  "It  is  written  in 
the  prophets."  We  find  a  similar  instance  in  John  7  :  38  :  "He 
that  believeth  on  me,  as  the  Scripture  hath  said,  out  of  his  belly 
shall  flow  rivers  of  living  water."  All  these  examples  fall 
within  the  limits  of  typical  prophecy,  inasmuch  as  within  the 
original  fact  to  which  the  Old  Testament  language  relates,  those 
other  cases  to  which  it  is  applied  are  comprehended  and  typified. 


28o       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Exactly  in  the  same  manner  John  uses  the  language  of  the 
Redeemer  himself,  when,  in  chapter  18:9,  he  refers  with  an 
"in  an  order  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  to  chapter  17  :  12, 
where  yet  the  discourse  was  only  of  spiritual  perdition.1  But 
did  John  mean  that  the  Saviour,  in  that  saying,  had  in  view  the 
fact  to  which  he  himself  applied  it,  or  did  he  only  mean  to  say 
that  the  Saviour's  words  in  this  respect  also  might  be  considered 
as  verified  ? 

Dr.  Woods  holds  that  the  phrase  "that  it  might  be 
fulfilled"  is  often  used  to  signify  no  more  than  that 
"the  things  spoken  of  answer  to  the  words  of  the 
prophet ^or  that  his  words  may  be  justly  applied  to 
them."  Tholuck  gives  it  greater  force,  and  sees  in  it 
a  real  recognition  of  divine  intention,  while  still  he 
maintains  that  it  introduces  the  words  of  the  prophecy 
as  applicable  to  all  events  in  the  history  of  the  king- 
dom of  God  which  so  resemble  the  original  event  that 
it  may  be  regarded  as  typifying  them  or  as  including 
them  in  its  conception,  its  idea,  or  its  causes.  The 
interpretation  of  Tholuck  is  to  be  preferred,  because 
it  gives  us  all  the  elasticity  of  prophetic  language 
sought  by  Dr.  Woods,  while  it  sees  in  the  passages 
quoted  real  prediction,  and  not  mere  illustration. 

A  third  view  is  well  expressed  by  Toy,  and,  tin  nigh 
insufficient  in  itself,  it  may  be  united  to  the  fourth 
with  advantage  :  "  The  spiritual  significance  of  the 
name,  the  spiritual  presence  of  God  with  men,  was 
realized    more    and    more   perfectly  as    Israel    grew   in 

'John  17:  12:  "While  I  was  with  them  I  kept  them  in  thy  name 
which  th. hi  hast  given  mej  ami  I  guarded  them,  and  not  one  of  them 
perished,  bul  the  son  "t  perdition."  [ohn  [8  :  «» :  "That  the  word 
mi^'ht  be  fulfilled  which  he  spake,  Of  those  whom  thou  hast  given  me  I 

lost  not  one." 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  28l 

knowledge,  and  most  perfectly  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  most  truly  embodied  the  divine,  and  became  the 
Redeemer  of  men."  Hence  the  Immanuel  of  the 
prophecy  would  be,  though  not  exactly  a  type  of  Christ, 
an  early  embodiment  of  a  truth  to  become  revealed  in 
him  as  its  fullest  form. 

A  fourth  view  of  the  quotation  is  the  one  at  present 
held  by  the  great  majority  of  evangelical  scholars. 

About  the  year  b.  c.  734,  Ahaz,  the  king  of  Judah, 
learned  that  the  two  powers  nearest  him  on  the  north 
and  northeast,  Israel  under  Pekah,  and  Syria  under 
Rezin,  intended  to  invade  Judah,  besiege  Jerusalem, 
and  set  up  in  his  place  another  king,  who  would  do 
their  will.  He  was  terrified  at  the  prospect.  God, 
however,  commanded  Isaiah  to  assure  him  that  the  pur- 
pose of  the  confederates  should  fail,  and  to  offer  him  a 
miraculous  sign  that  the  prediction  of  immunity  from 
invasion  should  be  fulfilled.  Ahaz  refused  to  ask  for  a 
sign,  whereupon  the  prophet  said  :  "  Jehovah  himself 
shall  give  you  a  sign."  The  sign  was  to  be  this.  A 
young  woman  designated  as  "  the  maiden,"  perhaps 
some  person  well  known  to  the  king,  as  for  instance 
his  daughter,  should  conceive  and  bear  a  son,  whose 
name  should  be  called  "  Immanuel,"  that  is,  "  God  is 
with  us."  The  name  was  one  of  hope  and  confidence 
that  God  had  not  deserted  his  people,  but  was  with 
them  to  save  them  from  the  threatened  hostilities  of 
their  rivals,  and  it  was  thus  like  the  names  given  by 
Isaiah  to  his  own  sons  (7:358:1-4,  18),  the  one 
Shear-jashub,  "  A  remnant  shall  return,"  as  a  testi- 
mony that  Judah  should  be  carried  away  captive,  but 
not   annihilated,  and  the  other  Maher-shalal-hash-baz, 


2S2        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

"  The  spoil  speedeth,  the  prey  hasteth,"  as  a  testimony 
that  Assyria  should  soon  lay  waste  both  Damascus  and 
Samaria.  Before  Immanuel  should  be  old  enough  to 
"know  to  refuse  the  evil  and  choose  the  good,"  the 
hostile  lands  should  be  overrun  by  their  foes,  and 
Jerusalem  delivered  from  their  power.  The  young 
woman  was  probably  some  influential  and  well-known 
person  about  to  be  married,  since  she  is  called  definitely 
"the  maiden"  ;  and  the  child  seems  to  have  been  born 
and  named  in  accordance  with  the  prophetic  word,  and 
to  have  occupied  a  princely  position,  for  in  Isa.  8  :  8, 
the  land  of  Judah  is  termed  "thy  land,  O  Immanuel." 
Thus  all  the  events  here  foreseen  by  the  prophet  lay  in 
the  immediate  future.  The  prophecy  referred  to  the 
birth  of  Christ,  first,  in  a  typical  manner,  "  the  maiden  " 
foreshowing  Mary,  and  the  princely  Immanuel,  Jesus. 
It  referred  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  secondly,  in  the 
peculiar  formation  of  its  language  under  the  guidance 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  so  that  the  terms  employed  were 
specially  adapted  to  the  more  distant  event  as  well  as 
to  the  nearer. 

When  we  read  in  the  gospel  :  "All  this  is  come  to 
pass  that  it  might  be  fulfilled  which  was  spoken  by  the 
Lord  through  the  prophet,"  we  must  not  force  the 
words  into  some  unnatural  sense,  and  say  that  there 
was  no  real  prediction  of  the  Incarnation  in  the  I  >ld 
Testament  passage,  but  only  such  a  resemblance  to  the 
later  events  as  reminded  the  evangelist  of  it.  There 
is  little  ground  for  question  that  he  found  in  the  words 
quoted  a  genuine  prophecy  of  the  birth  of  the  Son  of 
God  from  a  virgin  mother,  or  that  he  regarded  this 
event  as  ordained  by  God  in  order  that  the  declaration 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  283 

of  the  prophet  might  be  accomplished.  But,  while  we 
must  not  belittle  the  statement  of  the  evangelist, 
neither  must  we  exaggerate  it,  as,  for  instance,  by 
making  him  teach  that  the  miraculous  birth  of  our 
Lord  had  no  other  purpose  than  the  fulfillment  of  the 
prediction,  or  that  the  prediction  had  no  other  purpose 
than  to  point  to  the  birth  of  our  Lord  of  a  virgin 
mother,  and  no  other  fulfillment  ;  for  in  fact  he  says 
none  of  these  things. 

Nor  must  we  make  him  say  that  Isaiah  understood 
his  words  to  be  a  prediction  of  the  Messiah  when  he 
uttered  them.  In  some  cases  the  prophet  was  utterly 
unconscious  of  any  higher  reference  of  his  words  than 
that  which  lay  nearest  to  him,  though  the  Holy  Spirit 
so  shaped  them  that  they  should  foretell  far  greater 
events,  and  be  understood  by  his  people  in  due  time, 
for  their  admiration,  for  their  confirmation  in  the  faith, 
and  for  their  comfort.  We  have  a  special  instance  of 
this  sort  in  John  1 1  :  49-52  : 

"  A  certain  one  of  them,  Caiaphas,  being  high  priest 
that  year,  said  unto  them,  Ye  know  nothing  at  all,  nor 
do  ye  take  account  that  it  is  expedient  for  you  that  one 
man  should  die  for  the  people,  and  that  the  whole  na- 
tion perish  not.  Now  this  he  said  not  of  himself  :  but 
being  high  priest  that  year,  he  prophesied  that  Jesus 
should  die  for  the  nation  ;  and  not  for  the  nation  only, 
but  that  he  might  also  gather  together  into  one  the 
children  of  God  that  are  scattered  abroad." 

Caiaphas  meant  one  thing,  but  the  Holy  Spirit 
so  guided  his  mind  that  his  words  became  a  pre- 
diction of  another.  A  similar  instance  is  that  of 
Balaam   (Num.   22,    23,   and  24).     Many   of    the   pre- 


284        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

dictions  of  the  Old  Testament  must  be  placed  in 
this  class.  It  ought  not  to  seem  strange  that  he  who 
controls  all  events,  even  the  least,  should  care  for  the 
language  of  his  prophets,  and  give  it  such  a  form  as  is 
most  suitable  to  his  purposes.  It  is  to  this  providence 
of  God  in  the  utterance  of  Isaiah  that  Matthew  alludes, 
when  he  uses  the  peculiar  phraseology,  "  Spoken  by 
the  Lord  through  the  prophet."  His  interpretation  of 
the  prophecy  thus  declares  what  was  in  the  mind  of 
the  Lord  when  it  was  uttered  and  not  what  was  in  the 
mind  of  the  prophet.  Both  the  Spirit  of  inspiration 
and  the  prophet  thought  of  the  immediate  application 
of  the  words  ;  but  it  may  be  that  only  the  Spirit  of 
inspiration  thought  of  the  later  and  grander  application. 
Thus  Broadus  says  : 

It  is  often  unnecessary,  and  sometimes  impossible,  to  sup- 
pose that  the  prophet  himself  had  in  mind  that  which  the  New- 
Testament  writer  calls  a  fulfillment  of  his  prediction. 

Many  prophecies  received  fulfillments  which  the  prophet 
does  not  appear  to  have  at  all  contemplated.  But  as  God's 
providence  often  brought  about  the  fulfillment,  though  the 
human  actors  were  heedless  or  even  ignorant  of  the  predictions 
they  fulfilled,  so  God's  Spirit  often  contemplated  fulfillments  of 
which  the  prophet  had  no  conception,  but  which  the  evangelist 
makes  known.  And  it  is  of  a  piece  with  the  general  develop- 
ment of  revelation,  that  the  later  inspiration  should  explain  the 
records  of  the  earlier  inspiration,  and  that  only  after  the  events 
have  occurred  should  the  early  predictions  of  them  be  under- 
stood. 

The   chief  discussion   occasioned   by  this  view  turns 

upon  the  word  translated  "  virgin."     It  is  said  that  the 

Is  word  employed  here  means  a  virgin  in  the  strictest 

sense  ;  that  the  Hebrew  word  does  not  mean  a  virgin 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  285 

in  this  sense,  but  a  marriageable  young  woman,  whether 
strictly  a  virgin  or  not,  and  indeed  whether  married  or 
not ;  that  there  is  another  Hebrew  word  which  the 
prophet  would  have  used  had  he  intended  to  say  "  the 
virgin  "  ;  and  that  hence  his  prediction  cannot  properly 
be  interpreted  as  in  any  way  a  prediction  of  the  birth 
of  Jesus  from  a  virgin  mother. 

It  should  be  noticed,  however,  first  of  all,  that  the 
Greek  word1  here  employed  by  the  evangelist  does  not 
always  mean  a  virgin  in  the  strictest  sense,  but,  as 
Meyer  points  out,  often  designates  a  girl,  a  maiden,  in 
the  most  general  way,  and  sometimes  a  young  married 
woman.  No  doubt  it  is  used  by  Matthew  in  this  place 
in  the  strict  sense  ;  but  by  observing  its  wide  range  of 
meanings,  we  are  better  prepared  to  see  how  the 
Hebrew  word  here  used  by  Isaiah  may  also  have  a 
wide  range  of  meanings. 

Let  us  next  examine  the  statement  that  the  word 
here  used  in  the  Hebrew  does  not  mean  a  virgin,  but  a 
marriageable,  or  even  a  married  young  woman.  Toy 
is  one  of  those  who  hold  this  opinion,  and,  like  others 
of  his  school  of  criticism,  he  appeals  for  his  chief  proof 
to  the  Aramaic  and  Arabic  languages.  But  this  is  no 
evidence,  as  any  one  may  see  by  taking  a  list  of  com- 
mon English  words,  which  exist  also  in  German  and 
French,  and  observing  what  different  and  sometimes 
discrepant  shades  of  meaning  the  same  word  has  in 
the  three  languages*  Toy  admits  that  the  instances  in 
which  the  word  occurs  in  the  Old  Testament  do  not 
prove  that  the  person  designated  by  it  is  in  any  case 
already  married.      Gesenius,  who  gives  the  word  this 

1  n-apSe'vos. 


286       QUOTATIONS  OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

wide  meaning,  appeals  to  the  passage  before  us  as  the 
only  instance  in  which  it  refers  to  a  married  woman  ; 
but  this  surely  is  to  beg  the  very  question  at  issue.  It 
is  probably  fair  to  say  that  the  word  means  in  general 
a  marriageable  but  unmarried  young  woman,  a  girl,  a 
maiden,  but  sometimes  passes  over  into  the  stricter 
meaning  of  spotless  virginity,  exactly  like  our  word 
"maid,"  or  the  German  "Jungfrau."  It  seems  to 
have  this  stricter  meaning  in  Solomon's  Song  6:8: 

There  are  threescore  queens,  and  fourscore  concubines, 
And  virgins  without  number. 

Here  there  are  three  classes  in  the  harem  of  Solomon 
— queens,  concubines,  and  maidens.  What  was  the 
distinction  between  the  concubines  and  maidens,  unless 
it  was  that  the  former  stood  in  the  position  of  wives 
to  the  king,  while  the  latter  were  supposed  to  be  still 
intact  ? 

The  passage  from  the  idea  of  a  marriageable  young 
woman  to  that  of  strict  virginity  would  be  especially 
easy  for  a  Hebrew,  whose  law  required  that  every  bride 
should  be  found  a  virgin,  on  pain  of  death  (I)eut.  22  : 
20,  21).  Thus  Hitzig  says,  commenting  on  the  proph- 
ecy :  "  The  sense  of  '  unmarried  woman  '  is  demanded  ; 
the  tinstained  purity  is  understood  in  this  connection 
as  a  matter  of  course."  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  a 
marriageable  young  woman  would  necessarily  be 
thought  of  by  the  Hebrews  as  a  virgin,  whatever  word 
might  be  employed  to  designate  her,  since  no  young 
woman  not  a  virgin  was  marriageable  under  their  law. 
Tin-  prophet,  in  saying  that  a  "maiden  should  conceive 
and    hear   a  son,"  would  think  of   her  as  a  virgin,  tor  it 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  287 

was  far  from  his  purpose  to  accuse  her  and  subject  her 
to  death.  Hence  Matthew  is  true  to  the  prophetic 
thought  when  he  uses  the  word  "  virgin  "  in  the  quo- 
tation. We  are  not  to  suppose,  however,  that  he  lays 
great  stress  upon  this  special  word  ;  he  found  it  in  the 
Septuagint,  and  retained  it  ;  but  if  he  had  rejected  it 
for  "maiden,"  or  "young  unmarried  woman,"  his 
meaning  would  have  been  precisely  the  same,  and  we 
should  have  understood  the  strict  virginity  of  Mary, 
from  the  fact  which  he  states,  that  Joseph  had  not  yet 
taken  her  to  himself  in  reality,  though  he  had  complied 
with  the  forms  of  marriage. 

We  must  examine,  next,  the  statement  that  there  is 
another  Hebrew  word  which  the  prophet  would  have 
employed  to  express  the  idea  of  strict  virginity.  The 
statement  is  true  in  part  ;  there  is  another  word  which 
is  employed  when  the  thought  of  virginity  is  to  receive 
special  emphasis  (Gen.  24  :  16  ;  Exod.  22  :  16,  17  ;  Lev. 
21  :  14;  Deut.  22  :  19,  23,  28  ;  etc.).  There  is  no  reason 
to  suppose,  however,  that  either  the  prophet,  or  Mat- 
thew in  quoting  him,  needed  a  word  which  would  give 
special  emphasis  to  the  idea  of  virginity.  And  unfor- 
tunately for  the  adverse  argument  which  I  am  consid- 
ering, this  word  also  passes  through  a  wide  range  of 
meanings,  and  is  used  for  a  young  woman  where  there 
is  no  assertion  of  strict  virginity  (Amos  8  :  13),  and 
even  for  a  young  widow  (Joel  1  :  8).  Broadus  well 
says  of  this  last  passage,  that  had  such  an  instance 
been  found  for  the  word  employed  by  Isaiah  in  the 
prophecy  before  us,  "  it  would  have  been  claimed  as 
triumphant  proof  that  '  virgin '  is  not  here  a  proper 
translation." 


288       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

If  difficulty  is  found  with  the  statement  that  language 
specially  intended  by  the  prophet  to  refer  to  one  series 
of  events  was  so  shaped  by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration  as 
to  predict  also  another,  let  the  reader  consider  atten- 
tively the  instances  of  this  sort  already  referred  to  in 
John  ii  :  49-52  and  Num.  22,  23,  and  24.  The  lan- 
guage of  Isaiah  seems  to  have  received  special  super- 
vision from  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for,  though  "  the  maiden  " 
to  whom  the  prophet  immediately  refers  would  of 
course  be  married  before  bringing  forth  her  son,  noth- 
ing is  said  of  this,  and  thus  the  words  become  peculiarly 
appropriate  to  the  birth  of  Jesus  from  a  virgin  mother. 
Let  the  reader  consider  also  what  has  already  been  said 
in  this  chapter  on  double  reference  in  general  litera- 
ture. 

Difficulty  is  found  again  with  the  statement  that 
"  the  maiden  "  of  Isaiah  was  a  type  of  Mary,  and  her  son 
Immanuel  a  type  of  Jesus.  But  this  difficulty  will 
vanish  if  we  suppose,  as  we  have  already  had  reason  to 
do,  that  "the  maiden"  was  a  princess,  and  hence  a 
daughter  of  David,  and  perhaps  a  progenitor  of  Mary 
and  of  Jesus,  both  of  whom  were  "of  the  seed  of  David 
according  to  the  flesh."  1  The  son,  in  this  case,  would 
be  a  prince,  and  the  expression,  "thy  land,  0  Im- 
manuel," would  be  natural  ;  and  this  prince  of  the 
house  of  David,  bearing  a  name  so  significant  of  the 
presence  of  Jehovah  with  his  people,  would  be  a  vivid 
type  of  him  in  whose  person  God  was  to  dwell  among 
men. 

That  the  passage  was  intended  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to 
refer  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  as  well  as  to  the  events 
»  2  Tim.  2  :  8. 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  289 

immediately  predicted  by  the  prophet,  is  felt  by  almost 
all  Christians  who  read  it.  1.  Why  else  should  an  un- 
married woman,  a  maiden,  a  virgin,  be  selected  as  the 
destined  mother,  instead  of  some  woman  already  mar- 
ried ?  The  sign,  so  far  as  Ahaz  was  to  be  affected  by 
it,  would  be  exactly  as  vivid  in  the  latter  case  as  in  the 
former.  2.  Why  else  should  the  prophet  be  careful  to 
predict  the  birth  of  a  son  ?  Why  not  say,  indefinitely, 
a  child,  a  babe,  or  definitely,  a  daughter  ?  The  sign, 
to  Ahaz,  would  be  quite  as  significant.  3.  Why  else 
should  the  relative  poverty  of  this  boy  in  hii  early 
life  be  pointed  out  in  the  statement  that  he  should 
eat  "butter  and  honey,"  the  food  of  the  less  wealthy 
classes  ?  4.  Why  else  should  the  boy  be  spoken  of  in 
chap.  8  :  8  as  the  lord  of  Judah,  in  the  words,  "  thy 
land,  O  Immanuel  ?  "  It  is  evident  that  we  have  to  do 
here  with  language  carefully  chosen  to  refer  to  events 
far  apart  in  time,  and  with  events  the  earlier  of  which 
are  typical  of  the  later.  We  may  confidently  adopt 
the  words  of  Alexander :  "  There  is  no  ground,  gram- 
matical, historical,  or  logical,  for  doubt  as  to  the  main 
point,  that  the  church  in  all  ages  has  been  right  in  re- 
garding this  passage  as  a  signal  and  explicit  prediction 
of  the  miraculous  conception  and  nativity  of  Jesus 
Christ." 

We  have  here,  therefore,  a  typical  prediction  of  the 
incarnation,  strongly  indicated  as  such  by  the  overflow 
of  its  language  from  the  contemporary  to  the  more  re- 
mote persons  and  events. 

XXVII.  Similar  overflow  of  language  is  found  at 
Micah  5  :  1-5  as  quoted  at  Matt.  2  :  6.  The  whole 
section  of  Micah  in  which  these  verses  occur,  relates  to 
z 


29O       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

the  invasions  of  Palestine  by  the  Assyrians  under 
Sargon,  near  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century  b.  c. 
l>ut  just  here  the  horizon  of  the  prophet  expands,  and 
he  foresees  the  birth  of  a  king  in  Bethlehem,  a  descen- 
dant of  David,  a  man  "  whose  goings  forth  are  from  of 
old,  from  ancient  days,"  who  should  "  be  great  unto 
the  ends  of  the  earth,"  and  who  should  "feed  his  flock 
in  the  strength  of  Jehovah,  in  the  majesty  of  the  name 
of  Jehovah  his  God."  This  ruler  should  beat  back  the 
Assyrians,  and  "waste  their  land  with  the  sword." 
The  passage  takes  the  color  of  the  time  in  which  it  was 
written  ;  but  the  prophet  rises  for  a  moment  above  the 
circumstances  immediately  about  him,  and  uses  lan- 
guage which  could  be  adequately  fulfilled  only  in  such 
a  personage  as  our  Lord,  and  in  his  spiritual  victories 
over  all  the  enemies  of  the  people  of  God,  of  whom  the 
Assyrians  were  vivid  types. 

XXVIII.  I  shall  consider  next  the  quotation  of 
Hosea  1  1  :  1  in  Matt.  2:15.  The  extracts  from  Dr. 
Leonard  Woods  and  from  Tholuck,  concerning  the 
formula  of  quotation,  "that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  in 
my  discussion  of  Matt.  1  :  22,  23,  should  be  considered 
here.  The  reader  should  weigh  again  what  I  have  said 
in  the  same  discussion  about  the  formation  of  prophetic 
language  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for 
the  words  of  Hosea  are  as  admirably  adapted  to  the  use 
to  which  the  evangelist  applies  them  as  are  those  of 
Isa.  7:14. 

The  quotation  finds  its  best  explanation,  however,  in 

the  typical  view  of  the  (  )ld  Testament.  It  is  called  by 
Kuenen  "an   abandoned    post."         But    it    is    abandoned 

only  by  critics  of  his  own  school,  who  see  no  typi- 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  291 

cal  relationship  between  the  old  dispensation  and  the 
new  ;  while  those  who  believe  in  such  a  typical  rela- 
tionship find  in  this  quotation  only  a  vivid  illustration 
of  it.  The  evangelist  tells  us  that  the  flight  of  Joseph 
and  Mary  with  their  child  into  Egypt,  and  the  return 
to  the  holy  land,  took  place  u  that  it  might  be  fulfilled 
which  was  spoken  by  the  Lord  through  the  prophet, 
saying,  Out  of  Egypt  did  I  call  my  son."  The  words 
as  they  stand  in  the  Old  Testament  refer  primarily  to 
Israel,  as  is  evident  at  a  glance.  The  prophet  may 
have  found  no  other  meaning  in  them  ;  and  it  should 
be  observed  that  here  again  the  evangelist  ascribes 
their  reference  to  Christ  to  "the  Lord,"  and  not  to  the 
prophet  ;  they  were  "  spoken  by  the  Lord  through  the 
prophet."  That  Israel  is  regarded  by  the  Spirit  of  in- 
spiration as  a  type  of  Christ  is  certain  both  from  the 
New  Testament  and  the  Old  ;  and  it  is  equally  cer- 
tain that  the  typical  relationship  is  traced  in  various 
minute  details,  as  well  as  the  broader  outlines  of  the 
sacred  history.  The  passage  of  Israel  through  the  Red 
Sea  is  a  type  of  the  baptism  which  Christ  instituted 
and  observed  (1  Cor.  10  :  1,  2).  The  Passover  is  a 
type  of  the  Lord's  sacrifice  (1  Cor.  5  :  7),  and  of  its 
memorial,  the  Lord's  Supper  (1  Cor.  5  :  8),  as  are  also 
the  manna  and  the  water  from  the  rock  (John  6  : 
26-59;  :  ^or-  IO  :  3—5.  16,  17).  The  forty  years  of 
wandering  in  the  wilderness  can  scarcely  be  regarded 
otherwise  than  as  a  type  of  the  forty  days  of  tempta- 
tion in  the  desert.  All  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
Mosaic  ritual  were  "  a  shadow  of  the  good  things  to 
come"  (Heb.  10  :  1).  Many  of  the  great  men  of  the 
Hebrew  records  were  types  of  the  Messiah,  like  Mel- 


292       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

chizedek  (Heb.  7),  and  Moses  (Deut.  18  :  15  ;  Acts  3  : 
22  ;  7  :  37)-  The  whole  people  of  Israel,  in  so  far  as 
it  suffered  "for  righteousness'  sake,"  was  a  type  of  the 
suffering  Saviour  of  men.  This  is  presented  most 
graphically  in  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  where  "  the 
servant  of  Jehovah"  is  sometimes  Israel  (41  :  8—1 3), 
while  at  other  times  he  can  be  none  else  than  the  Mes- 
siah (42  :  1-9  ;  53  :  2-12). 

Since,  then,  the  old  dispensation  is  a  type  of  the 
new,  it  should  occasion  no  surprise  that  the  descent 
of  Israel  into  Egypt  and  the  exodus  should  fore- 
shadow similar  events  in  the  life  of  the  Redeemer 
of  the  world.  But,  it  is  said  by  Kuenen,  the  two 
series  of  events  are  not  similar.  "  As  regards  Israel, 
Egypt  was  the  land  of  servitude;  as  regards  the  child 
Jesus,  it  was  a  temporary  refuge  ;  the  calling  out  of 
Egypt  is  thus  an  entirely  different  thing  with  the 
evangelist  from  what  it  was  with  the  prophet."  This 
is  an  appeal  to  popular  impressions,  rather  than  to 
history.  In  fact,  Egypt  was  as  truly  a  refuge  to  the 
Israelites  as  to  Christ  (Gen.  43,  44,  45).  It  is  probable 
that  the  larger  part  of  their  sojourn  there  was  pros- 
perous, the  oppression  coming  only  when  God  would 
wean  them  from  the  riches  of  Goshen  and  take  them  to 
their  own  land.  The  return  of  Joseph  and  Mary  with 
Jesus  was  similar  to  that  of  Israel,  inasmuch  as  it  was 
accomplished  in  obedience  to  the  direct  command  of 
God  (Matt.  2  :  19.  20).  But  the  typology  goes  deeper 
than  this,  and  reaches  the  firm  rock  of  those  eternal 
principles  on  which  G<>d  bases  his  actions.  This  is 
well  expressed  by  Dr.  Leonard  Woods:1  "The  prin- 
1  In  his  "  I  ecturca  on  the  Quotations." 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  293 

ciple  of  the  divine  government  was  in  both  cases  the 
same.  In  bringing  the  children  of  Israel  out  of  Egypt, 
the  event  intended  by  the  prophet,  God  showed  his 
kindness  to  his  people,  his  care  to  protect  and  deliver 
them,  his  faithfulness  in  executing  his  promise.  He 
showed  the  same  kindness  and  care  and  faithfulness  in 
respect  to  his  holy  child  Jesus  in  the  event  described 
by  the  evangelist." 

XXIX.  The  quotation  of  Jer.  31:15  in  Matt.  2:18 
is  perhaps  another  instance  of  the  typical  element  in 
Scripture  :  "  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was  spoken 
through  Jeremiah  the  prophet,  saying : 

A  voice  was  heard  in  Ramah, 

Weeping  and  great  mourning, 

Rachel  weeping  for  her  children  ; 

And  she  would  not  be  comforted,  because  they  are  not." 

The  original  passage  refers  primarily  to  the  conquest 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  the  Assyrians.  Many 
were  slain,  and  many  were  carried  away  into  slavery. 
The  disaster  had  occurred  long  before  the  prophecies  of 
Jeremiah  were  uttered  ;  and  he  depicts  it  here  in  order 
to  comfort  the  captives,  and  to  predict  the  joyful  return 
of  the  nation  to  its  own  land.  By  a  bold  flight  of  the 
imagination  he  portrays  Rachel,  the  wife  of  Jacob,  as 
rising  from  her  tomb  and  weeping  so  bitterly  for  the 
calamities  of  her  children  that  the  sound  of  her  lamen- 
tation was  heard  in  Ramah,  a  city  not  far  distant. 

This  view  of  the  passage  needs  to  be  justified,  for  it 
is  held  by  almost  all  commentators  that  the  lamentation 
of  Rachel  is  supposed  by  the  prophet  to  be  caused  by 
the    destruction   of    the    kingdom    of    Judah,    and    its 


294       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

capital,  Jerusalem,  a  disaster  in  which  her  descendants, 
the  Benjamites,  were  involved.  In  accordance  with 
this  interpretation,  the  Ramah  mentioned  in  the  proph- 
ecy is  placed  in  Benjamite  territory.  Such  in  sub- 
stance is  the  view  of  Mansel,  Plumptre,  Alford,  Lange, 
Hitzig,  Meyer,  and  Broadus.  But  it  is  erroneous,  as 
an  inspection  of  the  prophecy  itself  will  show.  The 
prophecy  consists  of  three  divisions.  In  the  first,  Je- 
hovah addresses  the  Northern  kingdom,  calling  it,  as 
usual,  sometimes  Israel,  and  sometimes  again  Ephraim, 
since  Ephraim  was  its  leading  tribe  (ver.  1-22).  In 
the  second  division  he  addresses  the  Southern  kingdom, 
as  usual  calling  it  Judah,  because  Judah  was  its  leading 
tribe  (ver.  23-26.)  In  the  third  division  he  addresses 
both  kingdoms,  and  calls  them  "the  house  of  Israel, 
and  the  house  of  Judah  "  (ver.  27-40).  These  three 
divisions  of  the  prophecy  are  as  distinct  as  language 
can  make  them,  and  are  based  on  the  political  divisions 
of  the  chosen  people.  The  chapter  is  thus  like  an 
American  State  paper,  addressed  in  the  first  part  to  the 
Northern  States  of  our  Union  ;  in  the  second  to  the 
Southern  States;  and  in  the  third  to  both  as  forming 
one  people. 

The  words  quoted  by  Matthew  are  in  the  first  part  of 
the  chapter,  and  are  addressed  to  the  Northern  tribes, 
instead  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem.  They  predict  the  res- 
toration of  Israel,  the  replanting  of  the  mountains  of 
Samaria,  the  prosperity  of  Ephraim.  The  verses  qui  ited 
by  Matthew  1  efer  to  the  Northern  nation  under  the  name 
of  Ephraim,  its  leading  tribe.     Rachel  laments  for  her 

children  :  but  Jehovah  bids  her  "refrain  from  weeping." 
because  her  children  are  destined  to  "come  again  from 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  295 

the  land  of  the  enemy."  He  continues,  "  Surely  I 
have  heard  Ephraim  bemoaning  himself"  in  penitence. 
We  have  only  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  whole  Northern 
nation  is  called  Ephraim  here,  as  so  often  elsewhere,  to 
appreciate  the  appropriateness  of  the  picture  of  Rachel 
weeping  over  its  captivity  ;  for  the  patriarch  Ephraim 
was  her  grandson  ;  and  hence  the  whole  people  were 
regarded  ideally  as  her  descendants.  We  have  only  to 
bear  in  mind  that  the  Northern  kingdom  of  Ephraim 
was  destroyed,  and  its  people  slain  or  carried  away, 
more  than  a  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  the  cap- 
tivity of  the  Jews,  to  see  that  the  passage  before  us  can 
have  no  reference  whatever  to  the  latter  event. 

In  general,  however,  the  commentators  have  not  ob- 
served '  this  clear  division  of  the  chapter,  and  hence 
have  referred  the  weeping  of  Rachel  chiefly  to  the 
calamities  of  Benjamin  in  the  overthrow  of  Judah,  the 
Southern  kingdom.  Hence,  also,  of  the  five  Ramahs 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  they  select  the 
Ramah  which  lay  within  the  territory  of  Benjamin,  a 
few  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  and  regard  it  as  the  place 
where  the  weeping  was  heard.  The  motive  of  Rachel 
is  thus  seriously  belittled,  as  it  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
sorrows  of  a  petty  tribe,  instead  of  a  mighty  nation. 

The  commentators  on  this  passage  have  yet  another 
reason  for  their  choice  of  the  Ramah  just  north  of 
Jerusalem  besides  its  situation  in  Benjamite  territory. 
The  reason  is  presented  in  the  assertion  that  this 
Ramah  was  the  place  where  all  the  captive  Jews  were 
assembled,  some  to  be  slain  and  others  to  be  carried 
out  of  the  country.     The  statement,  however,  is  sus- 

1  Naijelsbach  has  noticed  it. 


296        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

tained  by  no  real  evidence.  The  only  semblance  of 
proof  adduced  for  it  is  found  in  Jer.  40  :  1  :  "  The  word 
which  came  to  Jeremiah  from  Jehovah,  after  that 
Nebuzaradan,  the  captain  of  the  guard,  had  let  him  go 
from  Ramah,  when  he  had  taken  him,  being  bound  in 
chains,  among  all  the  captives  of  Jerusalem  and  Judah, 
which  were  carried  away  captive  into  Babylon."  The 
Ramah  north  of  Jerusalem  was  thus  probably  the  head- 
quarters of  the  "captain  of  the  guard."  As  it  was  near 
the  main  road  leading  toward  Babylon,  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  many  prisoners  underwent  some  sort  of 
examination  there.  But  the  text  proves  very  little 
beyond  this  tentative  inspection  of  some  prisoners  of 
war.  It  shows  us  that  Jeremiah  had  been  "taken 
bound  in  chains  among  all  the  captives  of  Jerusalem," 
that  he  had  been  carried  to  Ramah,  whether  with  other 
captives  or  apart  from  them,  and  that  he  was  "  let  go  " 
after  an  interview  with  the  Assyrian  commander. 
More  than  a  year  before  this  the  country  of  Judah  had 
been  overrun,  and  its  inhabitants  disposed  of,  and  even 
a  large  part  of  the  citizens  of  Jerusalem  had  yielded 
themselves  to  the  invaders.  All  the  captives  seem  to 
have  been  sent  to  Riblah,  far  north  of  this  Ramah, 
where  their  ultimate  fate  was  decided  (2  Kings  25:18- 
21).  The  most  terrible  tragedies  of  the  war  were  enact  ed 
at  Riblah  ;  there  the  prince  royal  and  the  nobles  were 
slaughtered,  and  the  eyes  of  the  king  put  out  (Jer.  39  : 
1-7);  there  also  the  principal  priests,  five  of  the  court 
favorites,  and  sixty  other  prominent  Jews,  were  sen- 
tenced to  death  and  executed  (2  KingS25:  18  21).  When 
Dr.  K.  Payne  Smith,  in  the  "Speaker's  Commentary," 
tells  us  that   all   the  captives  were  reviewed  at  Ramah, 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  297 

and  "all  such  as  were  unequal  to  the  journey  would 
there  be  put  to  death,"  he  is  indulging  in  mere  con- 
jecture. We  have  no  account  of  such  a  general  muster 
there ;  nor  do  the  Scriptures  tell  us  that  a  single  execu- 
tion took  place  there.  The  writer  of  the  article  on 
"  Ramah  "  in  Smith's  "Dictionary  of  the  Bible"  adds 
to  the  persons  slaughtered  at  this  place  those  who  were 
poor,  forgetting  the  express  statement  of  Scripture  that 
the  poor  were  left  behind  to  cultivate  the  soil  (2  Kings 
25  :i2).  Thus  it  is  not  proved  that  the  Ramah  in- 
tended by  the  prophet  was  one  where  special  cruelties 
were  perpetrated,  for  we  have  no  proof  that  any  Ramah 
was  the  theatre  of  special  cruelties. 

Not  only  is  there  no  reason  in  favor  of  the  Ramah 
immediately  north  of  Jerusalem,  but  there  is  a  special 
reason  against  it.  The  prophet  seems  to  think  of 
Rachel  as  rising  from  her  tomb,  and,  without  departing 
from  it,  as  weeping  so  loudly  that  her  voice  was  heard 
in  Ramah,  and  was  recognized  there  as  a  voice  of  bitter 
wailing  and  lamentation.  Now  the  tomb  of  Rachel  is 
well-known  to  this  day,  and  is  shown  where  the  writer 
of  Gen.  35  :  19,  20  places  it  ;  its  distance  from  this 
Ramah  is  about  nine  miles,  and  Jerusalem  lies  between 
the  two.  The  prophet,  even  in  the  boldest  flight  of  his 
imagination  would  hardly  represent  her  cry  as  penetrat- 
ing so  far. 

Is  there  any  Ramah  of  the  Old  Testament  that  will 
suit   the   requirements  of   this   passage  better  ?     Yes. 

(1)  The  home  of  Samuel  was  at  a  certain  Ramah 
(1  Sam.  7  :  17),  from  which  he  went  "in  circuit  to 
Bethel,  and  Gilgal,  and  Mizpeh,"  to  judge  the  people. 

(2)  It  seems  to  have  been  at  his  home  that  Saul  visited 


298        QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

him  (i  Sam.  9),  for  the  servant  of  Saul  said:  "There 
is  in  this  city  a  man  of  God,"  which  he  could  not  have 
done  had  the  city  not  been  known  as  the  residence  of 
the  seer.  Moreover,  Samuel  seems  to  have  been  in  his 
own  house  when  Saul  was  entertained  by  him.  (3)  The 
place  where  Samuel  was  when  Saul  visited  him  could 
not  have  been  the  Ramah  north  of  Jerusalem,  for  that 
was  in  the  territory  of  Benjamin.  But  God  said  to 
Samuel  :  "  I  will  send  thee  a  man  out  of  the  land  of 
Benjamin";  and  moreover  Saul  "passed  through  the 
land  of  the  Benjamites"  and  came  "to  the  land  of 
Zuph,"  before  reaching  the  Ramah  where  Samuel 
dwelt.  (4)  This  Ramah  was  near  the  tomb  of  Rachel, 
for  in  letting  Saul  go,  Samuel  sketched  his  journey 
(1  Sam.  10  :  2-6),  and  mentioned  "  Rachel's  sepulchre" 
first  in  the  order  of  places  where  significant  events 
were  to  occur  during  the  day.  We  see  at  once  how 
the  prophet  might  picture  the  voice  of  Rachel  as  being 
heard  in  a  Ramah  which  was  near  her  grave,  and 
perhaps  nearer  than  any  other  city.  The  dignity  which 
it  derived  from  its  antiquity  and  from  its  association 
with  memories  of  Samuel  would  also  fit  it  for  a  place 
in  a  strain  of  impassioned  poetry  like  this. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  use  of  this  passage  in  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew.  We  see  at  once  why  it  was  sug- 
gested to  the  evangelist  by  the  slaughter  of  the  infants, 
for  the  tomb  of  Rachel  was  near  not  only  to  Ramah, 
but  also  to  Bethlehem,  as  we  are  told  in  Gen.  35  :  10, 

20,  so  that  the  crime  of  Herod  was  enacted,  as  it  were. 

under  her  very  eyes.  But,  it  is  said  by  almost  all  com- 
mentators, the  inhabitants  of  Bethlehem  belonged  to 

Judah,  so  that  the  slaughtered  babes  could  not  be  called 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  299 

her  children.  This  is  to  forget,  however,  that  after 
the  return  from  the  captivity  there  was  no  distinction 
of  tribes.  Many  families  kept  genealogies  tracing  their 
lineage  to  various  tribes ;  but  the  whole  people  were 
called  Jews,  taking  their  name  from  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  occupied  the  land  without  distinction  of  tribal 
boundaries.  Such  had  been  the  case  for  more  than 
five  hundred  years  when  the  Gospel  by  Matthew  was 
written.  Hence,  as  Rachel  was  considered  ideally  by 
the  prophet  the  ancestress  of  the  Israelites,  only  a 
small  part  of  whom  were  her  actual  descendants,  so 
now  she  is  considered  ideally  by  the  evangelist  as  the 
mother  of  the  whole  people,  only  a  part  of  whom  are 
her  actual  descendants.  As  the  favorite  wife  of  Jacob, 
as  a  strong  and  beautiful  character,  and  as  one  doomed 
to  a  life  of  disappointment  and  to  a  premature  and 
pathetic  death,  she  had  made  a  deep  impression  on  all 
acquainted  with  her  history.  This  is  illustrated  re- 
markably in  Ruth  4:11,  where  the  friends  of  Boaz 
wish  him  many  children  of  his  bride,  and  say,  "Jehovah 
make  the  woman  that  is  come  unto  thy  house  like 
Rachel  and  like  Leah,  which  two  did  build  the  house  of 
Israel,"  thus  putting  Rachel  first,  though  she  was  the 
second  wife,  and  though  she  had  but  two  sons,  while 
Leah  had  six.  It  was  natural,  then,  that  the  New 
Testament  writer,  in  the  passage  before  us,  should 
speak  of  her  as  the  ancestress  of  all  the  people,  and 
should  depict  her  as  bewailing  the  fate  of  a  portion  of 
them  slain  in  circumstances  of  such  atrocity  and  such 
pathos. 

My  interpretation  of  the  prophecy  does  not  depend 
in    any   essential    manner    upon    my  rejection  of   the 


300       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Ramah  north  of  Jerusalem.  If  we  accept  that  city,  and 
hold  that  it  was  chosen  by  the  prophet  because  it  was 
in  the  territory  of  Benjamin  and  the  scene  of  special 
cruelties,  there  will  still  be  ground  for  the  application 
of  the  passage  to  the  event  which  took  place  in  Beth- 
lehem, a  city  which  now  belonged  to  all  the  tribes  in 
common,  to  her  descendants  not  less  than  to  others, 
and  which  had  become  the  scene  of  a  heartrending 
tragedy.  But  the  use  of  the  passage  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  its  use  in  the  New  are  brought  into  more 
obvious  connection  by  the  supposition  that  the  Ramah 
mentioned  in  it  was  near  the  sepulchre  of  Rachel,  as 
also  Bethlehem  was,  and  that  the  lamentation  was  caused 
by  the  calamities  of  persons  the  majority  of  whom  were 
ideally,  though  not  actually,  her  descendants. 

We  may  now  examine  the  formula  of  quotation  em- 
ployed here  by  Matthew,  and  we  shall  find  that  it  is 
not  without  special  significance.  Usually  he  introduces 
his  prophetic  quotations  with  the  words,  "that  it  might 
be  fulfilled."  As  we  have  seen  in  the  passages  from 
his  Gospel  already  discussed  in  this  chapter,  the 
formula,  "  that  it  might  be  fulfilled,"  probably  refers  to 
the  design  of  God  in  overruling  typical  events,  and  in 
shaping  prophetic  language  so  that  the  future  might  be 
foreshadowed  in  the  present  and  the  past.  Here,  how- 
ever, the  writer  abandons  his  favorite  formula,  and  says 
only,  "  Then  was  fulfilled."  This  choice  of  another 
formula,  of  an  exceptional  kind,  in  the  case  before  us, 
was  not  the  result  of  mere  chance  or  forgetfulness.  It 
may  have  been  occasioned  by  the  fear  of  the  evangelist 
that  his  readers  would  be  perplexed  with  the  statement 
that   the  slaughter  of  the   infants  took   place   in   order 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  301 

that  prophecy  might  be  fulfilled,  though  it  would  be 
true  iu  a  certain  sense,  and  with  explanations  too 
cumbrous  to  introduce  into  his  work.  But,  however 
this  may  be,  the  formula  is  manifestly  not  so  strong  as 
that  which  it  has  displaced,  and  we  must  not  press  it 
too  far.  The  mourning  at  Bethlehem  fulfilled  the 
words  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  in  what  manner  did  it  fulfill 
them  ?  Three  views  of  the  force  of  the  formula  in  this 
case  have  been  advanced. 

1.  Many  believe  that  it  was  designed  merely  to  ex- 
press result,  and  not  intention,  such  a  resemblance  of 
the  two  cases  as  renders  the  language  applicable  to 
both  and  not  a  strict  typical  relationship  of  the  one  to 
the  other.  We  might  suppose  that  Rachel  is  brought 
forward  not  as  an  individual,  but  as  the  representative  of 
motherhood.  We  know  her  maternal  instincts,  her 
longing  for  offspring,  her  rejoicing,  even  in  death,  that 
"she  had  brought  a  man-child  into  the  world/'  She  is 
an  admirable  symbol  of  motherly  yearning  and  motherly 
sorrow.  If  the  prophet  speaks  of  her  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  mothers  of  Israel  bereaved  of  their 
children  by  war,  it  is  because  she  is  the  best  repre- 
sentative of  all  bereaved  mothers.  In  every  tragedy 
like  that  of  Bethlehem,  therefore,  his  words  have  a  new 
fulfillment,  for  mothers  are  bereaved,  and  Rachel  weeps 
afresh. 

2.  If  this  view  is  too  vague  and  general,  the  formula 
of  quotation  will  permit  us  to  follow  Broadus,  who  cites 
Calvin,  Fairbairn,  and  Keil,  in  tracing  a  specific  rela- 
tion between  the  events  referred  to  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  in  the  New.  The  massacre  at  Bethlehem, 
writes  Broadus  in  substance,  like  the  captivity  of  Israel, 

2  a 


302       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

threatens  to  destroy  the  future  of  the  nation,  which 
really  depends  on  the  Messiah.  "  If  the  infant  Mes- 
siah is  slain,  then  is  Israel  ruined.  Suppose  only  that 
some  at  Bethlehem,  who  had  heard  the  shepherds  and 
the  magi,  now  despondingly  believed  that  the  new-born 
king  was  slain,  and  their  mourning  would  really  cor- 
respond to  that  mourning  at  Ramah  which  Jeremiah 
pathetically  described.  In  both  cases  too,  the  grief  at 
actual  distresses  is  unnecessarily  embittered  by  this 
despair  as  to  the  future,  for  the  youthful  Messiah  had 
not  really  perished,  just  as  the  captivity  would  not 
really  destroy  Israel.  In  both  cases  the  would-be 
destroyer  fails,  and  blessings  are  in  store  for  the  people 
of  God."  It  is  often  said  in  answer  to  such  a  state- 
ment, that  the  attempt  to  destroy  a  whole  nation  by 
slaughter  and  deportation  is  an  event  too  magnificent 
to  stand  as  a  type  of  the  attempt  to  destroy  the  Mes- 
siah by  the  slaughter  of  a  few  babes.  But  the  smallest 
events  narrated  in  the  Gospels  become  magnified  by 
virtue  of  their  relation  to  the  Son  of  God  and  the  sal- 
vation of  the  world.  In  this  manner  the  fishermen  of 
Galilee  are  made  royal,  the  crown  of  thorns  a  celestial 
diadem,  and  the  treachery  of  Judas  the  greatest  of 
crimes. 

3.  The  formula  of  quotation  employed  in  this  case, 
however,  does  not  oblige  us  to  hold  a  view  so  strong  as 
this,  if  it  offends  us.  The  words,  "then  was  fulfilled," 
may  mean  no  more,  to  quote  again  from  Broadus, 
"than  that  there  is  here  a  noteworthy  point  in  the 
general  relation  between  the  older  sacred  history  and 
the  new."  They  do  not  assert  that  the  passage  quoted 
from    the    prophet    is    a   definite    prediction,   distinctly 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  303 

foretelling  the  murder  of  the  infants.  Yet  it  may  be 
that  they  assert  something  more  than  a  mere  resem- 
blance of  the  events,  and  set  forth  a  resemblance  brought 
about  under  the  government  of  him  who  overrules  all 
things  for  good,  and  takes  notice  when  even  a  sparrow 
falls  to  the  ground. 

If  some  of  these  typical  passages,  as  for  example  the 
four  preceding  ones,  appear  to  stand  on  the  extreme 
verge  of  the  class  to  which  they  belong,  let  us  reflect, 
first,  that  the  Oriental  mind  is  imaginative,  and  revels 
in  the  use  of  type  and  analogy  and  illustration  ;  and 
secondly,  that  the  Bible  is  distinguished  even  among 
Oriental  books  for  the  boldness  and  the  abundance  of 
its  imagery. 

XXX.  At  2  Cor.  6:17,  the  writer  exhorts  his  read- 
ers to  lead  pure  Christian  lives,  and  to  keep  themselves 
from  debasing  associations.  He  adopts  as  his  own  the 
language  of  Isaiah  52  :  11,  12,  without  any  formula  of 
quotation  : 

Come  out  from  among  them  and  be  ye  separate, 
And  touch  no  unclean  thing,  and  I  will  receive  you. 

This  adoption  by  the  apostle  of  prophetic  language 
as  appropriate  to  his  purpose  leads  Toy  to  say  that 
"  the  prophet's  exhortation  to  the  captives  in  Babylon, 
to  guard  themselves  against  (ceremonial)  defilement  in 
that  idolatrous  land,  is  transferred  by  the  apostle  to  the 
Christians  of  his  day,  according  to  the  principle  of 
interpretation  that  whatever  is  addressed  to  Israel  is  at 
the  same  time  a  prediction  respecting  the  times  and 
people  of  the  Messiah." 

On  the  contrary:  (1)  No  such  principle  as  this  has 


304        QUOTATIONS  OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

ever  been  held  by  the  apostles  or  any  others.  Probably 
Toy  has  in  mind  the  belief  of  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  of  the  great  mass  of  Christians,  that 
there  is  a  genetic  connection  between  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  the  New ;  that  Israel  is  in  a  general  way  a 
type  of  Christ  and  of  his  people  ;  and  that  the  typical 
element  of  the  old  dispensation  is  found  not  only  in 
many  of  its  larger  features,  but  also  in  many  of  the 
more  minute.  But  this  statement  is  totally  different  in 
essence,  as  well  as  in  words,  from  the  statement  which 
he  has  presented  to  us  as  the  belief  of  the  Apostle  to 
the  Gentiles,  "  that  whatever  is  addressed  to  Israel  is  at 
the  same  time  a  prediction  respecting  the  times  and 
people  of  the  Messiah."  To  maintain,  as  Darwin  does, 
that  man  is  genetically  connected  with  the  lower 
vertebrates,  so  that  he  is  typified  and  prefigured  in 
them,  is  not  to  maintain  "  that  whatever  is  said  of  the 
lower  vertebrates  is  at  the  same  time  a  prediction 
respecting  man."  The  typical  element  of  the  Scrip- 
tures is  in  this  respect  like  the  typical  element  of  other 
literatures  ;  it  does  not  appear  on  every  page  ;  here  it 
emerges,  and  there  it  withdraws  from  our  vision.  Even 
in  the  "  Second  Part  of  Faust,'  the  most  prolific  in  rec- 
ondite meaning  of  all  poems,  we  are  not  always  con- 
fronted with  secondary  reference.  Nay,  further; 
where  the  typical  element  in  literature  becomes  clear- 
est, there  many  features  are  ascribed  to  the  type  which 
are  not  reproduced  in  the  antitype:  the  resemblance  is 
only  general.  (2)  The  words  are  not  quoted  as  a 
prediction  at  all  ;  no  prediction  is  asserted  or  intimated, 

and    no   prediction    IS  called    for   by  what  the  apostle  is 

saying.     If  the  passage  were  found  in  a  modern  sermon 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  305 

commending  purity  of  life,  the  thought  would  not  occur 
to  any  one  that  the  preacher  regarded  it  as  a  prediction. 
(3)  The  language  is  quoted  by  the  apostle  simply  be- 
cause it  is  an  appropriate,  vigorous,  and  poetic  embodi- 
ment of  his  thought,  and  because  the  duty  of  purity, 
enjoined  upon  the  people  of  God  in  the  prophetic  age, 
is  equally  a  duty  in  the  Christian  dispensation.  The 
prophet,  it  is  true,  has  the  departure  from  Babylon  in 
view,  and  also  ceremonial  defilement.  But  he  sees  in 
the  departure  from  Babylon  a  departure  from  corrupt 
and  corrupting  associations,  and  in  the  ceremonial  de- 
filement a  symbol  of  spiritual  defilement.  The  law  of 
clean  and  unclean  had  a  typical  and  moral  purpose,  and 
the  prophet  took  the  right  view  of  it.  Indeed,  all  the 
prophets  regarded  the  ceremonial  as  of  value  only  as  it 
represented  the  real ;  they  were  not  chiefly  concerned 
about  the  letter  of  the  law  ;  they  inculcated  its  spirit, 
and  its  letter  only  as  the  vehicle  and  expression  of  the 
spirit.     Alexander  has  well  written  : 

The  idea  that  this  high-wrought  and  impassioned  composition 
has  reference  merely  to  the  literal  migration  of  the  captive  Jews, 
says  but  little  for  the  taste  of  those  who  entertain  it.  The  whole 
analogy  of  language,  and  specially  of  poetic  composition,  shows 
that  Babylon  is  no  more  the  exclusive  object  of  the  writer's 
contemplation  than  the  local  Zion  and  the  literal  Jerusalem  in 
many  of  the  places  where  those  names  are  mentioned.  Like 
other  great  historical  events,  particularly  such  as  may  be  looked 
upon  as  critical  conjunctures,  the  deliverance  becomes  a  type, 
not  only  to  the  prophet,  but  to  the  poet  and  historian,  not  by 
any  arbitrary  process,  but  by  a  spontaneous  association  of  ideas. 

XXXI.  In  Matt.  13  134,  35,  we  find  the  statement 
that  our  Lord  "  spake  in  parables  unto  the  multitudes, 


y 


306       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

that  it    might   be   fulfilled  which  was   spoken  by  the 
prophet,  saying, 

I  will  open  my  mouth  in  parables  ; 

I  will  utter  things  hidden  from  the  foundation  of  the  world." 

The  passage  is  in  Ps.  yS  :  2,  and  the  quotation  is  from 
the  Septuagint,  but  is  quite  free. 

The  first  objection  to  the  quotation  is  that  the  para- 
bles of  Jesus  are  not  at  all  like  those  which  the  psalm- 
ist had  in  mind  when  he  wrote  it.  The  difficulty 
vanishes  upon  closer  inspection.  It  is  true  that  the 
parables  or  illustrations  of  the  psalm  are  drawn  from 
the  history  of  Israel,  and  not,  like  those  of  Jesus,  from 
nature  and  from  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  time  ; 
but  the  Hebrew  words  rendered  in  the  Gospel  "  parable  " 
and  "things  hidden,"  as  Toy  says,  "  are  used  with  large 
latitude  in  the  Old  Testament,  of  parables,  proverbs, 
apothegms,  and,  as  here,  of  any  didactic  poetical  piece 
in  which  there  may  be  nothing  of  a  properly  gnomic  or 
parabolic  character."  The  words,  then,  embrace  in 
their  meaning  such  parables  as  our  Lord  uttered. 

The  second  objection  turns  upon  the  typical  use  of 
such  passages,  and,  if  it  were  admitted  in  principle, 
would  deny  the  whole  typical  element  in  the  literatures 
of  the  world,  sacred  and  secular.  *>?*».* 

The  saying  "  was  spoken  through  the  prophet  ^Tvy 
Jehovah,  and  the  words  are  therefore  regarded  as  his, 
and  not  man's.  They  are  intended  in  the  psalm  to 
state  the  method  of  teaching  which  Jehovah  employed 
when  he  spoke  to  the  masses  of  the  people,  as  is  evident 
from  the  introductory  lines: 

Ciivc  ear,  <>  my  people,  to  my  law, 

Iih  line  yroui   ears  to  the  words  of  my  mouth. 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  307 

Some  psalms  show  by  their  structure  that  they  were 
intended  for  the  choir  of  the  tabernacle  or  the  temple, 
and  not  for  the  people  at  large.  Others  are  for  the 
people  in  general.  All  commentators  refer  Psalm  yS 
to  the  latter  class  ;  and  its  opening  words  prove  that 
its  author  produced  it  for  popular  instruction.  Delitzsch 
comments  on  them  as  follows  :  "  The  poet  comes  for- 
ward among  the  people  as  a  preacher." 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  New  Testament.  When  Je- 
hovah appeared  in  the  person  of  Christ,  the  evangelist 
says,  he  often  employed  the  same  illustrative  method 
of  instruction  in  addressing  the  masses  of  the  people, 
as  is  evident  from  the  words,  "  All  these  things  spake 
Jesus  unto  the  multitude  in  parables."  Thus  the  ful- 
fillment was  literal.  The  Old  Testament  is  full  of  illus- 
trative matter  of  all  kinds,  designed  to  bring  the  truth 
to  the  apprehension  of  ordinary  minds.  Jesus,  in  his 
studies  of  the  Scriptures,  must  have  been  struck  with 
the  prominence  of  this  feature,  and  with  the  divine 
wisdom  and  mercy  manifest  in  it,  just  as  we  are.  His 
own  methods  of  illustrative  teaching,  when  addressing 
the  multitudes,  were  probably  based  on  those  which 
he  found  employed  in  the  sacred  books  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  method  was  summed  up  most  graphi- 
cally in  the  words  of  the  quotation,  which  would  often 
be  present  to  his  mind  as  a  brief  expression  of  the 
thought  of  God  concerning  the  best  way  of  imparting 
religious  truth  to  the  majority  of  men,  and  he  would 
adopt  them  as  an  inspired  formulary  of  it,  and  thus 
speak  in  parables,  that  these  words  might  be  fulfilled. 
The  psalmist,  who  carries  out  the  method  to  a  certain 
extent,  was  in  so  far  a  type  of  the  Messiah,  who  was  to 


308        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

give  it  the  fullest  exemplification  and  sanction  in  his 
own  teaching.  That  the  application  of  the  quotation 
turns  upon  the  fact  that  the  psalmist  addressed  it  to 
the  "people"  expressly  is  evident  from  what  our  Lord 
says  in  Matt.  13:1 1  — 1 7,  where  he  makes  a  distinction 
between  the  multitude,  in  their  need  of  parables,  and 
the  apostles,  who  did  not  need  them  so  much. 

The  second  line  of  the  quotation  is  very  free,  but  the 
departure  from  literal  exactness  does  not  affect  the  argu- 
ment of  the  New  Testament  writer  in  the  least,  and  he 
neither  gains  nor  loses  by  it.  The  passage  quoted,  if 
read  as  it  stands  in  the  Hebrew  text,  will  be  seen  to 
refer  to  the  illustrative  method  by  which  God  seeks  to 
instruct  the  ignorant,  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  the 
New  Testament  writer  employs  it. 

XXXII.  In  Matt.  21  142;  Mark  12:10,  n  ;  Luke 
20  :  1 7  ;  Acts  6  :  1 1  ;  and  1  Peter  2  :  7,  there  is  a  quota- 
tion from  Ps.  118  :  22,  23  : 

The  stone  which  the  builders  rejected, 

The  same  was  made  the  head  of  the  corner  : 

This  was  from  the  Lord, 

And  it  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes. 

The  psalm  was  written  after  the  exile,  and  was  de- 
signed to  comfort  and  cheer  the  people.  Israel,  re- 
jected by  the  nations,  is  chosen  by  God  to  be  again  his 
favored  people.  The  providence  of  God  is  thus  lull  of 
surprises;  those  whom  man  rejects  because  ot  their 
holiness,  he  promotes  to  great  honor,  and  "  chooseth 
the  weak  things  to  confound  the  mighty."  This  prin- 
ciple ot'  the  divine  government  finds  its  highest  and 
■   perfect  illustration  in  Christ,  and  hence  the  words, 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  309 

originally  applied  to  Israel,  are  even  more  applicable  to 
him.  But  furthermore,  Israel  was  a  type  of  Christ,  and 
hence,  to  use  the  words  of  Toy,  "in  Acts  and* Peter  " 
the  passage  "  is  applied  directly  to  the  Messiah  ;  as,  in- 
deed, the  Messiah  was  the  summing  up  and  embodi- 
ment of  the  spiritual  traits  and  functions  of  Israel." 

XXXIII.  In  Matt.  26:31  and  Mark  14:27,  Zech. 
13:7  is  quoted.  The  prophet  represents  Jehovah  as 
saving  to  the  sword :  "  Smite  thou  the  shepherd,  and  the 
sheep  shall  be  scattered."  Our  Lord,  in  the  quotation, 
changes  the  second  person  to  the  first  and  says  it  is 
written,  "I  will  smite  the  shepherd."  Toy  writes: 
"  This  alteration,  it  is  probable,  was  made  by  Jesus 
himself,  in  order  to  render  into  plain  language  the 
poetical  expression  of  the  prophet,  and  refer  imme- 
diately to  God  what  the  latter  assigns  to  the  avenging 
sword."  It  is  a  change  for  the  purpose  of  explaining, 
such  as  I  consider  in  our  fourth  chapter.  If  Jehovah 
commanded  the  sword  to  smite,  he  himself  smote.  As 
to  the  application  of  this  passage  to  the  Messiah,  we 
might  understand  that  our  Lord  merely  borrows  the 
language,  which  was  written  originally  for  quite  a  differ- 
ent occasion,  as  appropriate  to  the  event  about  to 
occur.  But  the  word  "for,"  which  he  uses,  seems  to 
indicate  that  we  have  a  real  prophecy  of  his  death  and 
of  the  scattering  of  Israel,  the  scattering  of  the  disciples 
being  the  first  of  the  dispersion  of  the  whole  people. 

The  question  remains  whether  the  prophecy  is  a  di- 
rect prediction  of  the  crucifixion  and  the  dispersion  of 
the  disciples  and  of  Israel,  or  an  indirect  one.  There  is 
absolutely  no  reason  why  the  prophecy  may  not  be  re- 
garded as  direct.     But  let  us  admit  that  it  originally  re- 


3IO       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

ferred  to  some  king  of  Israel  who  was  to  be  slain,  and 
to  the  dispersion  of  the  people  in  consequence  of  his 
death.  The  Hebrew  institution  of  kingship  was  itself 
a  type  of  Christ,  so  that  every  Hebrew  king  was  in 
some  sense  a  type,  vivid  in  proportion  to  his  faithful- 
ness. The  king  in  this  prophecy  was,  then,  a  type  of 
Christ,  and  the  effect  produced  by  his  death  a  fore- 
shadowing of  the  disaster  which  was  to  fall  upon  the 
disciples  at  the  crucifixion,  and  upon  Israel  under 
Titus.  It  is  objected  to  this  that  the  shepherd  in  the 
passage  quoted  must  be  an  unfaithful  shepherd,  be- 
cause in  the  eleventh  chapter,  two  chapters  back,  three 
unfaithful  shepherds  are  mentioned  and  denounced,  as 
also  a  foolish  shepherd,  who  should  succeed  them.  But 
the  shepherd  of  the  quotation  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
one  of  these  ;  on  the  contrary,  God  calls  him  "  the  man 
that  is  my  fellow."  But  if  we  grant  that  the  shepherd 
of  the  quotation  is  an  unfaithful  king,  he  would  still  be 
an  imperfect  type  of  Christ,  as  an  imperfect  king. 
Thus  Ewald  writes:  "The  theocratic  king  and  the 
Messiah  are  related  to  one  another  as  the  copy  and  the 
original."  The  Messiah  "differed  from  the  common 
kings  in  perfectly  performing  the  will  of  God,  whom 
they  served  only  imperfectly."  "  Hence  it  is  clear 
that  whatever  is  said  in  the  old  Testament  of  the  kings 
as  God's  representatives  may  be  affirmed  of  the  Mes- 
siah." Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  typical  pas- 
sages in  general  literature  can  scarcely  road  this  pas- 
sage of  Zechariah  without  feeling  that  the  language 
runs  over  into  the  typical  ;  and  they  will  find  many 
passages  in  the  neighboring  chapters  which,  did  they 
occur  in  a  poem  outside  the  Bible,  they  would   mark  at 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  311 

once  as  typical,  suggesting  as  they  do  personages  and 
events  other  than  those  of  the  immediate  foreground, 
but  placing  them  in  only  a  dim  half-light. 

XXXIV.  Still  another  instance  of  the  typical  inter- 
pretation is  found  in  the  quotation  of  Zech.  11:13m 
Matt.  27:9:  "  Then  was  fulfilled  that  which  was 
spoken  through  Jeremiah  the  prophet,  saying,  And 
they  took  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  the  price  of  him 
that  was  priced,  whom  certain  of  the  children  of  Israel 
did  price ;  and  they  gave  them  for  the  potter's  field,  as 
the  Lord  appointed  me." 

The  passage  is  clearly  from  Zechariah,  though  it  is 
ascribed  to  Jeremiah  in  our  text  of  the  Gospel.  The 
various  theories  by  which  scholars  have  sought  to  ac- 
count for  this  discrepancy  are  stated  by  Broadus  in  his 
"Matthew"  better  than  by  any  one  else.  The  discus- 
sion, however,  does  not  properly  fall  within  the  scope 
of  this  book.  My  opinion  is  expressed  by  Toy,  who 
says  :  "  It  is  not  probable  that  the  error  arose  from  a 
mistake  of  memory  in  the  evangelist."  "  It  is  more 
likely  that  it  is  a  clerical  error,  though  it  must  have  got 
into  the  text  early,  since  the  present  reading  is  sup- 
ported by  the  mass  of  manuscripts  and  versions." 

The  quotation  is  far  from  exact,  and  many  have 
doubted  that  it  was  intended  for  the  passage  in  Zech- 
ariah ;  but  there  need  be  no  question  of  this,  for  the 
general  sense  is  preserved  ;  and  the  custom  of  quoting 
without  regard  to  the  precise  words  was  universal,  as  I 
have  shown  in  our  second  chapter.  The  member  of  the 
sentence  which  says  "they  gave  them  for  the  potter's 
field,"  is  an  extreme  instance  of  the  paraphrastic  and 
exegetical  quotation,  designed  to   bring  out   the   pro- 


312       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW  TESTAMENT 

phetic  meaning  of  the  original,  and  to  show  the  relation 
of  the  passage  to  the  event  recorded  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, a  usage  illustrated  in  our  fourth  chapter. 

The  formula  of  quotation  is  the  same  with  that  of 
Matt.  2:17,  and  is  less  strong  than  the  one  usually 
employed  by  the  evangelist,  "That  it  might  be  ful- 
filled." Perhaps  he  was  deterred  by  reverence  from 
saying  that  the  Saviour  was  priced  at  thirty  pieces  of 
silver  in  order  that  a  prophecy  might  be  fulfilled,  or  by 
fear  that  his  readers  would  be  perplexed,  while  yet  he 
himself  found  in  the  event  a  fulfillment  of  prophecy. 
In  any  case,  whatever  his  motive,  he  employs  a  formula 
which  is  not  so  strong  as  the  one  it  displaces.  The 
three  views  that  may  be  entertained  of  a  prophecy  thus 
introduced  are  presented  in  my  discussion  of  Matt. 
2:18,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here.  It  appears  to 
me  that  we  have  in  the  case  before  us  a  clear  instance 
of  the  typical,  and  that  the  second  view  is  applicable 
to  it,  though  not  forced  upon  us  by  the  formula  of  quo- 
tation, and  presented  to  us  only  by  the  character  of  the 
transactions  brought  before  us  in  the  passage  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  in  that  of  the  New. 

The  action  described  in  the  Old  Testament  passage 
was  itself  emblematic  and  typical.  It  seems  to  have 
been  in  prophetic  vision,  and  not  in  reality.  The 
prophet,  the  representative  of  Jehovah,  is  the  shepherd 
of  the  people.  Their  sins  are  such  that  he  determines 
to  abandon  them  ;  and  he  demands  of  them  his  wages. 
They  manifest  their  contempt  of  him  by  valuing  his 
services  at  thirty  pieces  of  silver.  Jehovah  then  speaks, 
and  shows,  first,  that  he  regards  the  insult  as  offered 
to  himself,  and  not  simply  to  his  prophet  ;  and,  secondly, 


DOUBLE  REFERENCE  313 

that  he  regards  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  as  the  value 
placed  by  the  people,  not  on  the  service  rendered  them, 
but  on  Jehovah,  as  a  person.  These  two  things  are 
evident  from  his  words  :  "  Cast  it  unto  the  potter,  the 
goodly  price  that  I  was  priced  at  of  them."  When 
Jehovah  calls  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  a  "goodly 
price,"  he  speaks  ironically.  The  typical  nature  of 
the  passage  becomes  clear,  when  we  observe  that 
Jehovah  speaks  of  himself  as  sold  by  his  nation  for 
thirty  pieces  of  silver,  and  that  this  transaction,  seen 
by  the  prophet  in  vision,  was  accomplished  literally 
when  the  God-man  was  valued  at  the  same  paltry  sum, 
and  sold  for  it. 

The  events  were  not  only  identical  in  respect  to  the 
inner  spirit  which  occasioned  and  molded  them,  but 
they  were  significantly  alike  in  outer  drapery.  In  both 
cases  God  was  valued  contemptuously  at  exactly  thirty 
shekels,  the  price  of  the  life  of  a  slave  under  the 
Mosaic  law  (Exod.  21  :  32).  At  the  command  of  God 
the  prophet  cast  his  thirty  shekels  into  the  temple  to 
the  potter  ;  and  the  thirty  pieces  paid  to  Judas  were 
also  cast  down  in  the  temple,  and  were  given  to  the 
potter.  The  difficulty  which  has  been  found  with  the 
statement  that  Zechariah  cast  the  money  to  "  the  potter 
in  the  house  of  Jehovah  "  is  altogether  gratuitous.  It 
is  true  that  we  do  not  know  of  any  potter  selling  his 
wares  in  the  temple  ;  but  we  know  that  money  changers 
carried  on  their  business  there,  and  "  those  that  sold 
oxen  and  sheep  and  doves."  Moreover,  not  only  the 
merchants  of  these  beasts  and  birds  were  there,  but 
the  beasts  and  birds  themselves,  with  all  their  offend- 
ings  of  filth  and  odor  and  noise. 
2  B 


314        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

It  was  said  in  excuse  that  the  convenience  of  the 
worshipers  was  promoted.  But  this  motive  would 
bring  a  potter  into  the  temple  as  well.  Many  offerings 
were  of  oil  and  grain  and  flour  and  wine  and  incense 
and  salt,  in  definite  small  quantities ;  the  Talmud, 
according  to  Lightfoot,  says  that  these  "  and  other 
requisites  for  the  sacrifices"  were  sold  in  the  temple; 
and,  indeed,  from  the  nature  of  the  case  they  would 
not  be  banished  from  the  precincts  to  which  beasts 
were  admitted  ;  and  they  would  be  most  tastefully  and 
conveniently  conveyed  to  the  priests  in  vases  or  earthen 
vessels  of  greater  or  less  cost,1  according  to  the  ability 
of  the  worshiper.  Every  year  millions  of  persons  came 
to  Jerusalem  to  present  offerings  and  sacrifices,  which 
they  could  not  well  bring  with  them,  and  which,  there- 
fore, they  would  be  glad  to  find  near  at  hand,  together 
with  receptacles  to  hold  them.  There  can  thus  be 
little  doubt  that  somewhere  within  the  enclosure  of  the 
temple  there  was  a  shop  for  the  sale  of  pottery,  both 
in  the  time  of  Christ  and  in  that  of  the  prophet,  when 
the  house  of  Jehovah  was  especially  neglected  and  de- 
filed, since  such  articles  would  be  among  the  least 
objectionable  and  most  convenient. 

Alford  observes  that  "the  potter"  mentioned  by 
Matthew  "seems  to  have  been  some  well-known  man, 
since  he  is  designated  in  the  Greek  by  the  article." 
What  is  more  probable  than  that  he  was  the  potter 
wh<»  had  the  monopoly  of  the  temple  market  for  earthen- 
ware   vessels?      One    able    to    purchase    this   privilege 

1  Wrapping  paper  was  do<  yet  invented,  nor  cheap  tinware  nor  glass- 
I  and  cheap  pottery  would  teem  to  have  been  necessary  in  thi  1  u 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  315 

would  be  prominent,  and  he  would  be  well  known  to 
the  priests  by  daily  contact  with  them. 

Many  critics,  as  Evvald,  Bleek,  Meyer,  Kuenen,  and 
Toy,  have  been  so  perplexed  by  this  mention  of  the 
potter  in  the  temple,  to  whom  the  prophet  cast  the 
money,  that  they  have  proposed  to  substitute  another 
word  for  "potter."  By  changing  a  vowel  in  the  He- 
brew word  for  potter,  a  word  is  produced  somewhat 
like  the  Hebrew  word  for  treasury.  But,  as  the  word 
thus  formed  is  not  a  Hebrew  word  at  all,  another 
change  of  the  spelling  is  made,  and  thus,  by  two 
changes,  the  word  for  treasury  is  manufactured,  and  it 
is  then  thrust  into  the  record.1  This  violence  is  un- 
necessary. The  difficulty  felt  by  the  critics  about  find- 
ing a  potter  in  the  temple  appears  to  be  based  on  the 
supposition  that  the  presence  of  a  potter  would  imply 
the  presence  of  his  pottery,  with  its  laborers,  its  ma- 
chinery, and  its  dauby  clay.  Thus  Toy  says  :  "It  seems 
improbable  that  such  a  man  should  have  his  workshop 
in  the  sacred  enclosure."  But,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
potter  would  sell  his  wares  in  the  temple  without  mak- 
ing them  there. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  over  the  question  why 
Jehovah  ordered  the  prophet  to  cast  the  thirty  pieces 
of  silver  to  the  potter,  rather  than  to  any  other  person. 
No  definite  answer  can  be  given  ;  but  there  must  have 
been  some  reason  in  the  nature  of  the  case  which  the 
lapse  of  time  has  concealed  from  us  ;  and  the  most 
plausible  conjectures  connect  the  command  in  various 
ways  with  the  idea  of  contempt,  as  if  God  would  say  : 

1  Ladd  accuses  Matthew  of  "  laying  stress  on  a  corruption  of  the  He- 
brew text."     The  "  corruption  "  is  imaginary. 


316       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

"  The  price  at  which  my  people  value  me  is  contempt- 
ible ;  let  it  be  used  for  contemptible  purposes."  This 
would  imply  that  earthenwares  were  of  small  value,  or 
that  the  business  of  producing  and  selling  them  was 
little  esteemed. 

Whatever  the  immediate  reason  for  the  order  may 
have  been,  we  are  to  find  a  deeper  reason  in  the  care 
of  God  to  foreshadow  typically  the  events  connected 
with  the  crucifixion  of  his  son. 

XXXV.  How  hard  pushed  Kuenen  is  to  find  objec- 
tions to  the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  from 
the  Old  may  be  seen  in  his  criticism  of  Jesus  for  his 
citation  of  Ps.  41:9  with  reference  to  Judas,  as  re- 
corded in  John  13  :  18.     The  Hebrew  reads: 

He  which  did  eat  of  my  bread 
Hath  lifted  up  his  heel  against  me. 

Kuenen  assures  us  that  Jesus,  or  the  evangelist  re- 
porting him,  changed  the  wording  of  the  quotation 
slightly  in  order  to  make  it  refer  to  the  last  passover 
and  the  participation  of  the  traitor  in  it.  "The  slight 
variation,"  says  Kuenen,  "not  'my  bread,'  but  'bread 
with  me,'  is  plainly  used  to  make  the  agreement  be- 
tween the  complaint  of  the  poet  and  the  event  to 
which  it  applied  still  more  distinctly  visible." 

But  the  reading  of  John  13  :  18  best  established, 
and  adopted  by  the  revisers  of  the  English  Bible,  has 
"my  bread,"  and  not  "bread  with  me."  The  critic 
has  been  so  eager  to  make  a  point  against  the  ordi- 
nary Christian  views  of  Holy  Scripture,  that  he  has 
been  willing  to  base  his  objection  upon  a  reading 
of    inferior    authority,    withoul     a    word    of    warning 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  317 

that  the  foundation  on  which  he  builds  is  of  so  sandy 
a  nature,  or  that  the  reading  he  adopts  is  even  called 
in  question.  Were  this  reading  correct,  however,  it 
could  not  properly  be  used  as  he  uses  it.  The  phrase 
of  the  psalmist,  "  to  eat  my  bread,"  and  the  phrase 
which  Kuenen  attributes  to  Jesus,  "  to  eat  bread  with 
me,"  mean  exactly  the  same  thing ;  for,  when  the 
psalmist  says  that  the  traitor  "has  eaten  my  bread," 
he  is  not  thinking  of  bread  which  happened  to  belong 
to  him,  but  of  bread  on  his  own  table,  where  he  sat  as 
host,  and  the  other  as  guest.  The  phrase  always 
means  this  ;  and  Kuenen's  argument  is  based  on  the 
mere  sound  of  the  words  rather  than  on  their  sense. 

That  part  of  the  psalm  which  is  quoted  is  Messianic 
in  the  saddest  sense,  presenting  to  us  the  Saviour  and 
Judas  as  these  persons  were  typified  in  David  and  his 
pretended  friend. 

XXXVI.  In  Acts  2  :  25-32  and  13  :  35  we  have  a 
quotation  from  Psalm  16  to  show  that  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  is  predicted  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  first 
of  these  passages  verses  8-1 1  of  the  psalm  are  quoted ; 
but  in  the  second,  only  a  part  of  verse  10.  The  argu- 
ment is  the  same  in  both  cases  ;  and  if  in  the  second 
the  Apostle  Paul  quotes  but  a  fragment  of  the  passage, 
it  is  because  he  conforms  to  the  literary  custom  dis- 
cussed in  our  third  chapter,  knowing  that  his  hear- 
ers, who  were  Jews,  would  recall  the  whole  passage 
from  this  brief  line. 

Kuenen  objects  to  the  use  made  of  the  quotation  in 
the  New  Testament,  affirming  that  it  turns  upon  the 
mistranslation  of  the  lines  in  the  Septuagint  version. 
"The  original  "  he  writes,  "is  as  follows  : 


318        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Thou  wilt  not  abandon  my  soul  to  hades, 
Thou  wilt  not  suffer  thy  pious  one  to  see  the  pit. 

The  Greek  translator  wrote  : 

Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  hades, 

Or  in  the  power  of  hades; 
Nor  wilt  thou  suffer  thy  holy  one  to  see  corruption. 

And  it  is  precisely  on  this  variation  of  the  translation 
from  the  original,  that  Peter,  in  the  Acts,  founds  his 
interpretation."  Kuenen  would  say,  also,  that  Paul 
makes  a  similar  mistake  in  his  application  of  the  pas- 
sage, basing  it  upon  the  word  "corruption"  in  the 
Septuagint,  instead  of  the  word  "pit,"  which  is  found 
in  the  Hebrew  text. 

The  answer  is  twofold.  First,  it  is  not  quite  certain 
that  the  Hebrew  word  in  question  means  "pit,"  and 
not  "  corruption  "  ; '  it  is  a  question  of  derivation  ;  and 
though,  if  the  majority  of  recent  Hebrew  scholars  are 
right,  the  rendering  of  the  Septuagint  is  not  literally 
exact,  there  is  a  respectable  minority  who  justify  it, 
and  the  discussion  is  not  yet  at  an  end.  But  secondly, 
we  are  not  concerned  with  this  question.  Kuenen  is 
mistaken  in  representing  the  argument  as  turning  upon 
this  word  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  based  upon  the  pas- 
sage as  a  whole,  and  upon  the  idea  conveyed  by  the 
word.  Thus  Hengstenbcrg  :2  "  The  argument  of  Peter 
remains  in  full  force,  though  we  should  substitute 
'  grave  '  for  '  corruption,'  if  only  it  is  understood  that  by 
'seeing'  something  abiding  is  meant,  such  a  'seeing' 
as  is  always  meant  when  the  opposite  phrase  of  'see- 

i  The  revisen  ol  the  English  Bible  render  the  word  "  corruption." 

*  "  Commentary  of  the  Psalms." 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  319 

ing  life  '  is  employed."  Paul  also,  in  his  line  of  argu- 
ment (Acts  13  :  36,  37),  lays  no  stress  upon  the  idea 
of  corruption  as  distinguished  from  the  grave  :  "  David, 
after  he  had  in  his  own  generation  served  the  will  of 
God,  fell  on  sleep,  and  was  laid  unto  his  fathers,  and 
saw  corruption  ;  but  he  whom  God  raised  again  saw  no 
corruption."  The  argument  is  not  at  all  overthrown  if 
we  substitute  "grave"  for  "corruption."  Christ  did 
not  see  the  grave  in  the  same  sense  with  David ;  he 
did  not  see  it  in  the  sense  of  the  psalmist.  But  fur- 
thermore, if  the  psalmist  wrote  "  the  pit,"  the  idea 
which  he  intended  to  convey  was  not  that  of  a  mere 
depression  or  excavation  in  the  earth,  but  that  of  the 
grave,  with  all  of  decay  and  corruption  that  the  word 
implies  ;  and  hence  the  apostles  made  no  mistake  when 
they  accepted  the  Septuagint  word,  because  it  was  the 
one  their  hearers  could  refer  to,  and  because  it  pre- 
sented no  thought  not  conveyed  as  fully  by  the  Hebrew 
word.     When  Hosea  exclaims  : 

"  I  will  ransom  them  from  the  power  of  the  grave ;  I 
will  redeem  them  from  death  :  O  death,  where  are  thy 
plagues  ?     O  grave,  where  is  thy  destruction  ?  " 

he  does  not  think  of  the  grave  as  a  mere  excavation 
in  the  ground,  or  as  a  mere  cavern  in  the  rock.  He 
thinks  of  it  as  an  image  of  death,  of  destruction,  of 
dissolution.  So  in  the  case  immediately  before  us,  the 
psalmist  thinks  of  the  pit  as  the  synonym  of  death,  of 
destruction,  of  dissolution.  Thus  Vatablus  writes  : 
"To  see  the  pit  is  to  suffer  putrefaction."  That  the 
word  conveys  this  meaning  is  evident  from  Job  17  :  14, 
where  "the  pit"  is  used  as  a  synonym  for  "the  worm"; 


320       QUOTATIONS  OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

and  from  Isa.  38  :  17,  where  we  have  the  phrase  "the 
pit  of  corruption."  (See  also  Job  33  :  18  and  Isa.  51  : 
14.)  We  now  perceive  how  erroneous  the  statement  of 
Kuenen  is  ;  he  commits  the  very  fault  of  which  he 
accuses  the  sacred  writers  ;  he  bases  his  criticism  upon 
the  mere  sound  of  a  word,  and  not  upon  its  meaning ; 
and  the  apostles,  in  using  the  expression  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint,  are  true  to  the  thought  conveyed  by  the  He- 
brew, which  the  critic  ignores. 

Let  us  now  consider  the  statement  of  the  apostles 
that  the  passage  is  a  prophecy  of  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  from  the  dead.  We  are  met  at  once  by  such 
writers  as  Kuenen  and  Toy  with  the  assurance  that  it 
refers  only  to  the  author  himself,  and  to  the  present 
world.  When  he  says,  "  My  flesh  shall  dwell  in 
safety,"  the  word  "flesh"  means  his  whole  personality; 
and  when  he  says,  "  Thou  wilt  not  leave  my  soul  to 
sheol,"  the  word  "soul"  means  exactly  the  same  thing. 
"  On  what  shall  happen  to  him  after  his  decease,"  says 
Kuenen,  "he  does  not  think  at  all." 

There  are  not  many  interpreters,  however,  thus  able 
to  shut  their  eyes  to  the  glory  which  this  psalm  re- 
veals. Thus  even  Ewald  writes:  "There  is  hardly  to 
be  found  a  clearer  or  more  beautiful  declaration  con- 
cerning the  whole  future  of  the  individual  man  than 
the  present.  For  the  calm  glow  of  the  highest  inner 
expansion  and  serenity  here  lifts  the  poet  far  above  the 
future  and  its  menaces,  ami  it  stands  clearly  before  his 
soul  that  in  such  continued  life  of  the  spirit  in  God 
there  is  nothing  to  be  feared,  neither  pains  of  the  llesh, 
his  body,  nor  death  ;  but  where  the  true  life  is,  there 
also  the  body  must   finally  come  to  its  rest  ;  because 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  321 

deliverance  also  of  the  soul  from  the  grave  is  possible 
through  him  who  wills  only  life."  Few  expositors  fail 
to  find  in  the  psalm  this  rending  of  the  veil  of  the 
future  and  this  shining  through  of  immortal  hope. 

But  if  we  must  dissent  from  those  who  limit  the 
view  of  the  psalmist  to  himself  and  the  present  world, 
we  must  dissent  also  from  Stuart,  Hackett,  and  others, 
who  regard  the  psalm  as  exclusively  Messianic,  and 
find  in  it  no  reference  to  the  author  or  to  the  present 
world.  This  is  the  view,  of  Hengstenberg  in  his 
"  Christology  "  ;  but  he  retracts  it  in  his  "Commentary 
on  the  Psalms,"  on  the  grounds  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment does  not  declare  the  whole  psalm  to  be  Messianic  ; 
that  verses  1-8  have  but  little  of  a  Messianic  character  ; 
that  the  exclusive  reference  of  verses  9-1 1  to  the  Mes- 
siah rests  on  a  false  exposition  ;  and  finally,  that  the 
psalm  belongs  to  a  large  class,  in  which  the  psalmist  is 
a  type  of  the  Messiah,  and  should  not  be  wrested  from 
its  connection  with  its  fellows.  The  psalm  refers  to 
the  psalmist ;  but  its  language,  in  the  verses  quoted  in 
the  New  Testament,  sweeps  beyond  the  psalmist,  and 
becomes  predictive.  Not  only  so,  but  the  psalmist, 
under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit,  understood  his  words 
to  be  predictive :  "  Being  therefore  a  prophet,  and 
knowing  that  God  had  sworn  with  an  oath  to  him,  that 
of  the  fruit  of  his  loins  he  would  set  one  upon  his 
throne  ;  he  foreseeing  this  spake  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  Christ,  that  neither  was  he  left  in  hades,  nor  did 
his  flesh  see  corruption."  It  is  not  said  that  David 
clearly  foresaw  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  but  that, 
believing  the  promise  of  God  to  make  one  of  his  de- 
scendants the  Messianic  king,  he  was  moved  to  speak 


322       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

words  which  can  be  applied  in  their  full  sense  only  to 
the  resurrection  of  Christ.  David  may  not  have  had  full 
knowledge  of  the  purport  of  his  prophecy  ;  but  he  knew 
from  the  promise  of  God,  made  through  Nathan  (2  Sam. 
7  :  12-16),  that  one  of  his  descendants  should  reign 
"forever,"  that  "his  kingdom  should  be  established 
forever,"  that  his  "  throne  should  be  established  for- 
ever," and  was  inspired  to  use  the  far-reaching  language 
of  the  quotation.  That  the  prophecy  of  Nathan  is 
typical  is  held  by  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, who  quotes  a  part  of  it  as  referring  to  Christ  ; 
see  my  discussion  of  Heb.  1  :  5,  the  second  quotation 
of  the  verse.  Peter  tells  us  in  his  first  Epistle  (1  :  10- 
1 3),  that  the  prophets  did  not  completely  understand 
their  own  predictions,  but  studied  them  with  intense 
interest,  and  were  consoled  in  their  inability  to  solve 
the  mystery  with  the  revelation  that  they  spoke  to 
future  generations,  who  would  rightly  interpret  their 
words  in  the  light  of  the  fulfillment,  and  would  be 
helped  by  them.  Thus  the  statements  of  Peter  about 
the  prophets  in  general,  and  about  the  degree  of  fore- 
sight granted  to  David  in  the  case  now  before  us,  are 
in  complete  harmony.  The  remarkable  prediction  of 
Nathan  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  Ps.  89  : 
19-37  and  132  :  II-18.  The  promise  of  Cod  through 
Nathan  refers  primarily  to  Solomon  as  an  imperfect 
type  of  Christ;  but  when  it  declares  that  Cod  "will 
establish  the  throne  of  Solomon's  kingdom  forever," 
it  presents  to  us  language  which  was  only  partially 
realized  in  Solomon,  and  which  sweeps  forward  to  the 
greater  Son  of  David,  our  Saviour.  It  is  not  other- 
wise with   the   psalm    now   before  us,  which   was   based 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  323 

on  the  prophecy  of  Nathan  ;  it  refers  to  David,  in  a 
certain  sense  ;  but  it  flows  far  beyond  him  in  the  verses 
which  Peter  quotes.  Observe  how  naturally  the  words 
fit  the  Messiah,  while  only  by  an  unnatural  interpreta- 
tion, like  that  of  Kuenen  and  Toy,  can  they  be  limited 
to  the  psalmist,  or  even  applied  to  him  in  a  literal 
sense.  The  flesh  dwelling  in  safety  in  the  tomb  ;  the 
soul  not  left  to  sheol,  but  brought  back ;  the  holy  one 
not  allowed  to  see  the  pit  of  corruption  ;  the  path  of 
life  shown  to  him  ;  and  finally  his  ascension  to  the  right 
hand  of  God ;  all  these  expressions  point  to  Christ, 
and  they  can  have  had  only  an  imperfect  and  typical 
fulfillment  in  David,  "who  died  and  was  buried,"  who 
''saw  the  pit,"  and  who  "ascended  not  into  the 
heavens."  The  typical  character  of  the  passage  is 
clearly  indicated  by  the  overflow  of  its  language  from 
the  type  to  the  antitype. 

XXXVII.  In  John  2  :  17,  Ps.  69  :  9  is  quoted  as 
follows:  "The  zeal  of  thine  house  shall  eat  me  up." 
The  psalmist,  however,  places  the  verb  in  a  past  tense  : 
"The  zeal  of  thine  house  hath  eaten  me  up."  The 
evangelist  changes  the  form  to  show  that  he  regards 
the  psalm  as  Messianic,  and  this  verse  as  a  prediction 
of  the  zeal  of  Christ  for  the  house  of  God.  The  quo- 
tation is  thus  a  paraphrase  designed  to  explain  the  pas- 
sage quoted,  according  to  the  custom  considered  in  our 
fourth  chapter.  The  psalmist  speaks  of  himself,  but, 
being  a  type  of  Christ,  many  portions  of  the  psalm 
become  plainly  typical,  and  would  be  so  regarded  did 
they  occur  in  any  other  great  literature.  The  psalm  is 
elsewhere  quoted  in  the  New  Testament  as  Messianic 
(John  15:25;   19  :  28  ;    Rom,    15  :  3)  ;    but  it  is  not 


324       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

necessary  to  regard  every  part  of  it  as  predictive,  for  in 
all  typical  literature  the  language  often  advances  from 
the  primary  to  the  secondary  reference,  and  then  re- 
cedes. 

XXXVIII.  A  good  example  under  this  head  is  found 
in  Heb.  2  :  12,  13.  The  writer  is  speaking  of  the  in- 
carnation, and  saying  that  Christ  took  the  nature  of 
men.  Because  he  is  of  the  same  nature  with  them,  "he 
is  not  ashamed  to  call  them  brethren."  That  "he  is 
not  ashamed  to  call  them  brethren  "  is  shown  by  the 
facts  that  he  does  expressly  call  them  brethren  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  does  expressly  associate  himself 
intimately  with  them  in  other  ways. 

He  calls  them  "  brethren  "  in  Psalm  22:22: 

I  will  declare  thy  name  unto  my  brethren, 

In  the  midst  of  the  congregation  will  I  praise  thee. 

That  this  psalm  is  Messianic  has  been  the  almost 
unanimous  opinion  of  both  Jews  and  Christians  from 
the  earliest  times.  Our  Lord  appropriated  its  opening 
words  to  himself  at  the  moment  of  his  deepest  anguish 
for  us  on  the  cross  (Matt.  27  :  46).  It  foretells  the 
crucifixion,  and  describes  it  in  minute  detail,  as  the 
piercing  of  his  hands  and  feet  (ver.  16),  and  the  part- 
ing of  his  garments  by  lot  (ver.  18).  Then  it  pictures 
him  as  delivered  (ver.  21),  and  as  proclaiming  the  name 
of  God  to  his  "  brethren,"  acknowledging  men,  even 
after  his  glorious  resurrection,  as  his  nearest  kindred. 
The  psalmist  referred  to  himself;  but,  guided  by  the 
Holy  Spirit  of  prophecy,  he  became  a  type  of  Christ, 
and  employed  language  which  could  be  applied  only 
poetically  and   figuratively  to   himself,  but   literally  to 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  325 

the  Redeemer  of  our  race.  Bleek  observes  that  the 
particulars  chosen  from  the  history  of  the  passion  by 
Matthew  seem  to  have  been  selected  with  a  special 
view  to  illustrate  this  psalm  ;  yet  we  must  not  forget 
that  the  minute  correspondence  of  the  gospel  and  the 
psalm  has  its  ground  in  the  real  correspondence  be- 
tween the  facts  and  their  foreshadowing  in  prophecy. 
Delitzsch  regards  the  psalm  as  typical,  and  more  than 
typical : 

David's  description  of  personal  experience  in  suffering  goes 
far  beyond  any  that  he  himself  had  known  ;  his  complaints  de- 
scend into  a  lower  depth  than  he  himself  had  sounded  ;  and  his 
hopes  rise  higher  than  any  realized  reward.  Through  this  hy- 
perbolical character,  the  psalm  became  typico-prophetic.  David, 
as  the  sufferer,  there  contemplates  himself  and  his  experience  in 
Christ ;  and  his  own  present  arid  future  both  thereby  acquire 
a  background  which  in  height  and  depth  greatly  transcends  the 
limits  of  his  own  personality. 

Yet  again,  Christ  not  only  calls  men  his  brethren, 
but  also  associates  himself  with  them  in  other  ways 
which  indicate  his  possession  of  their  nature.  First, 
he  no  longer  occupies  the  position  of  the  supreme 
Deity,  but  comes  down  to  a  position  where  it  is  neces- 
sary for  him  to  trust  in  the  Deity,  like  other  men,  and 
says  :  "  I  will  put  my  trust  in  him,"  or,  according  to  the 
Hebrew  as  translated  by  Toy  :  "  I  will  hope  in  him." 
The  whole  verse  from  which  the  words  are  taken  is 
rendered  thus  in  the  Revised  version  :  "  I  will  wait  for 
the  Lord,  that  hideth  his  face  from  the  house  of  Jacob, 
and  I  will  look  for  him." 

Christ  associates  himself  with  men,  once  more,  by  call- 
ing his  followers  his  children  :  "  Behold,  I  and  the  chil- 
2c 


326        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

dren  whom  the  Lord  hath  given  me."  These  two  immedi- 
ately preceding  quotations  are  from  Isa.  8  :  17,  18.  It  is 
the  latter  that  has  given  Kuenen  the  greatest  offense. 
He  pronounces  it  "perhaps  the  strongest  instance  in  the 
whole  epistle  of  quotation  according  to  the  sound." 
On  the  contrary,  instead  of  being  a  "  quotation  accord- 
ing to  the  sound,"  it  rests  on  a  broad  and  firm  founda- 
tion of  the  context  from  which  it  is  taken,  and  of  the 
typical  relation  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  New. 
The  prophecy  of  which  it  is  a  part  was  uttered  at  a 
time  when  the  kingdom  of  Judah  hastened  to  its 
ruin.  The  policy  of  the  government  was  to  make 
alliance  with  the  Northern  kingdom  of  Israel  and 
the  kingdom  of  Syria,  in  an  effort  to  resist  the 
encroachments  of  Assyria,  instead  of  trusting  Je- 
hovah alone.  The  alliance  was  morally  corrupting, 
for  both  Israel  and  Syria  were  given  to  idolatry, 
with  its  superstitions,  its  cruelties,  and  its  odious  and 
deadly  vices.  Against  this  policy  Isaiah  protested  with 
his  utmost  zeal,  but  in  vain.  In  the  passage  under  re- 
view he  utters  a  specially  earnest  remonstrance,  and 
takes  exceptional  means  to  impress  it  upon  the  atten- 
tion of  his  opponents,  for  it  is  a  crisis  in  the  history  of 
his  people  and  a  crisis  in  his  own  life.  He  names  one 
of  his  sons  Shear-jashub,  "A  remnant  shall  return" 
(7:3;  10  :  20-22);  and  the  other  Mahcr-shalal-hash- 
baz,  "  Haste  spoil,  hurry  prey  "  (8  :  3, 4).  These  names, 
as  Toy  says,  "were  to  teach  the  people  that  Assyria 
would  spoil  Damascus  and  Samaria;  that,  in  the  midst 
of  foreign  invasion  and  dreadful  suffering,  God  would 

still  he  with  Judah.  and  that,  though  the  ravages  -I 
war  should  leave  only  a  remnant,  their   God  would  yet 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  327 

have  mercy  on  that  remnant,  and  make  of  it  a  nation  ; 
and  the  same  lesson  was  involved  in  the  prophet's  own 
name,  Isaiah,  '  Salvation  of  God.'  "  On  account  of 
these  significant  names,  which  the  prophet  and  his 
children  bore,  he  cried :  "  Behold,  I  and  the  children 
whom  Jehovah  hath  given  me  are  for  signs  and  for 
wonders  in  Israel  from  Jehovah  of  hosts." 

It  is  only  by  ignoring  the  element  of  double  refer- 
ence in  Scripture,  and  the  special  relation  of  the  Old 
Testament  to  the  New,  that  any  one  can  fail  to  justify 
the  New  Testament  writer  in  quoting  from  these  words. 
The  kings  of  the  Hebrew  history  were  foreshadows  of 
Christ  in  his  kingly  office,  and  the  priests  were  fore- 
shadows of  Christ  in  his  priestly  office.  So  all  the 
prophets  were  foreshadows  of  Christ  in  his  prophetic 
office,  beginning  with  Moses,  who  said,  "  Jehovah  thy 
God  will  raise  up  unto  thee  a  prophet  from  the  midst 
of  thee,  of  thy  brethren,  like  unto  me."  Their  typical 
character  becomes  especially  prominent  in  the  more 
earnest  and  crucial  moments  of  their  lives,  like  the  one 
before  us.  So  Isaiah,  the  greatest  of  the  prophets 
after  Moses,  was  an  eminent  type  of  the  Prophet  who 
should  come.  Our  Lord  thus  regards  him,  and  ap- 
plies to  himself  words  which  Isaiah  spoke  of  his  own 
mission  (Luke  4  :  18,  19;  compare  Isa.  61  :  1,  2).  So 
here,  Isaiah,  in  a  notable  moment  of  his  life,  stands  as 
a  type  of  the  chief  Prophet.  He  has  such  confidence 
in  the  word  of  God,  though  the  nation  at  large  rejects 
it,  that  he  presents  his  own  name  and  the  names  of 
his  children  as  witnesses  of  it.  The  children  of  a 
prophet  were  not  necessarily  prophets  ;  but  he  associ- 
ates his  children  with  him,  and  himself  with  his  chil- 


328       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

dren,  in  this  prophetic  utterance.  It  was  because  of 
their  relationship  to  him  that  he  could  name  them  so 
significantly  and  make  himself  a  partaker  with  them  of 
the  scorn  of  those  who  scorned  the  prediction,  and  of 
the  sad  justification  of  the  ultimate  fulfillment.  In  all 
this  he  was  foreshadowing  the  act  of  Christ  by  which 
he  associated  himself  with  his  people,  and  his  people 
with  himself,  in  both  his  humiliation  and  his  glory. 
Delitzsch  well  writes  : 

We  may  go  further,  and  say  that  the  Spirit  of  Jesus  was  al- 
ready in  Isaiah,  and  pointed,  in  this  holy  family  united  by  bonds 
of  the  shadow,  to  the  New  Testament  church  united  by  bonds 
of  the  substance,  which  in  his  high-priestly  prayer  (John  17) 
the  incarnate  Word  presents  to  God,  making  intercession  in 
terms  strikingly  similar  to  those  which  Isaiah  here  employs. 

Difficulty  has  been  found  with  the  fact  that  in  the 
original  passage  the  children  are  the  children  of  the 
prophet,  while  in  the  application  of  the  passage  they 
must  represent  the  children  of  God,  and  only  the 
brethren  of  Christ,  not  his  children.  But  surely  this 
is  straining  at  words.  What  the  writer  of  the  epistle 
says  is  that  Christ  took  our  nature,  so  that  "  both  he 
that  sanctifieth  and  they  that  are  sanctified  are  all  of 
one."  Of  this,  three  illustrations  are  presented  from 
the  Old  Testament  :  in  the  first,  he  calls  us  "  breth- 
ren "  ;  in  the  second,  he  takes  our  position  of  depend- 
ence on  God  ;  and  in  the  third,  he  associates  us  with 
himself  as  his  children.  All  these  illustrations  are 
pertinent.  Besides,  lie  lias  used  the  term  "  children  " 
<>i  his  disciples;  see  Mark  10:24:  "Children,  how 
hard  it  is  for  them   that   trust   in    riches   to   enter  the 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  329 

kingdom  of  God";  and  John  21  :  5  :  "Children,  have 
ye  aught  to  eat  ?  " 

We  may  close  our  discussion  of  these  quotations  by 
saying  with  Ebrard  :  "  Thus  the  three  citations  do  in 
reality  prove  exactly  what  they  ought  to  prove." 

XXXIX.  In  Heb.  1  :  6  we  have  a  quotation  which 
seems  to  refer  to  Christ  in  his  glory :  "  When  he 
again  shall  have  brought  his  first  begotten  into  the 
world,  he  saith,  And  let  all  the  angels  of  God  worship 
him."  The  older  expositors,  such  as  Chrysostom,  Am- 
brose, Anselm,  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  almost  uniformly 
regarded  the  text  as  referring  to  a  second  bringing  in 
of  Christ  to  the  world.  Recent  critics  in  general,  such 
as  Tholuck,  DeWette,  Liinemann,  Bohme,  Biesenthal, 
Hofmann,  Delitzsch,  and  the  English  revisers,  take  this 
view,  and  hold  that  the  Greek  admits  of  no  other.  The 
Greek  word  rendered  "bringeth"  in  our  Common 
version,  is  in  the  aorist  subjunctive,  and  should  be  ren- 
dered as  in  the  margin  of  the  revision,  "  shall  have 
brought."  The  position  in  the  sentence  of  the  word 
rendered  "again"  is  such  that  it  must  refer  to  a  second 
bringing  of  Christ,  and  not  to  a  second  quotation  from 
the  Old  Testament.  The  second  bringing  of  Christ 
into  the  world  may  be  his  resurrection,  or  his  coming 
at  the  general  judgment. 

Whence  is  the  quotation  derived  ?  Apparently  from 
the  Septuagint  of  Deut.  32  143,  of  which  it  is  a  literal 
reproduction.  The  fact  that  it  is  from  a  passage  which 
is  not  found  in  our  present  Hebrew  Bible  has  oc- 
casioned perplexity.  But  the  translators  of  the  Septu- 
agint must  have  had  before  them  a  Hebrew  text  which 
contained    it,   and    must    have   considered   it   genuine. 


330       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

We  know  that  our  present  Hebrew  text  is  defective  in 
certain  places,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  this 
may  be  one  of  them.  When  Toy  says  that  "  the 
Septuagint  verse  has  been  expanded  by  scribes  by  the 
paraphrastic  addition  of  material  "  from  certain  psalms, 
he  indulges  his  fancy  too  much.  There  is  absolutely 
no  evidence  of  such  intentional  tampering  with  the 
sacred  text. 

The  chapter  from  which  the  quotation  is  taken  is  the 
song  of  Moses.  It  was  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  pre- 
dicting and  depicting  the  reign  of  the  Messiah  in  glory. 
All  the  psalms  of  praise  and  triumph  to  which  reference 
has  just  been  made  are  typical,  and  find  their  perfect 
fulfillment  in  the  glorious  reign  of  Christ,  which  had 
its  commencement  in  his  resurrection,  and  will  attain 
its  final  and  complete  form  at  his  second  coming. 
Thus  the  song  of  Moses  and  these  psalms  may  be  held 
to  refer  in  the  strictest  sense  to  the  time  when  God 
"  again  shall  have  brought  his  first  begotten  into  the 
world." 

In  any  case,  even  if  the  words  quoted  should  prove 
to  be  not  genuine,  the  thought  which  they  express  is 
found  in  numerous  unquestioned  passages.  (See  Psalms 
29,  96,  97,  103,  and  148.)  I  ask  attention  especially  to 
Psalms  29  :  1  ;  103  :  20,  21  ;  and  148  :  2,  in  all  of  which 
the  angels  are  expressly  called  upon  to  worship.  It 
may  be  that  these  Scriptures  were  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer,  and  that  he  chose  the  line  from  the  Septuagint 
as  truthfully  and  beautifully  summing  them  up  for  his 
purpose.  If  so,  he  would  use  it  as  Scripture  without 
raising  the  question  oi  its  genuineness,  for  it  is  Scrip- 
ture as  to  its  sense,  even  if  not  as  to  its  verbal  form.     If 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  331 

he  has  employed  it  thus,  the  quotation  is  illustrated  in 
my  sixth  chapter,  where  I  have  grouped  many  similar 
instances. 

VI.  Final  Propositions. 

My  present  study  leads  me  to  the  following  propo- 
sitions : 

I.  The  element  of  double  reference  abounds  in  every 
great  literature,  and  not  unfrequently  triple  and  quad- 
ruple reference  occurs.  To  deny  that  double  reference 
exists  in  Hebrew  literature  is  to  deny  that  this  litera- 
ture is  the  product  of  literary  genius.  In  other  words, 
if  we  say  that  every  passage  of  Hebrew  literature  must 
be  interpreted  as  having  one  reference,  and  no  more, 
we  apply  to  it  an  arbitrary  rule  which  we  must 
abandon  the  moment  we  begin  the  study  of  any  other 
great  literature  which  the  world  has  produced. 

II.  The  secondary  reference  usually  relates  to  some 
of  the  more  important  of  human  interests  and  feelings, 
such  as  loyalty,  patriotism,  valor,  the  reformation  of 
political  abuses,  the  hope  of  national  aggrandizement, 
art,  music,  literature,  obedience  to  God,  eternal  life. 
If  the  Messianic  idea  was  prominent  in  the  minds  of 
the  Hebrew  writers,  it  would  naturally  seek  such  a 
channel  of  expression. 

III.  The  Hebrew  writers,  in  producing  their  second- 
ary references,  did  not  imitate  other  writers  ;  they 
simply  employed  a  method  of  teaching  common  to  liter- 
ary genius  in  all  ages  and  all  lands. 

IV.  The  secondary  references  in  any  literature  are 
not  always  clear  to  the  reader ;  they  do  not  always  lie 
on  the  surface.;  they  often  belong  to  the  deeper  things, 


332       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

and  may  perplex  the  most  skillful  interpreter,  as  the 
manifold  references  of  "  The  Second  Part  of  Faust  " 
sometimes  caused  Bayard  Taylor  almost  to  despair. 
In  such  cases  the  author  himself  is  our  best  guide,  if 
he  still  lives  to  be  consulted.  So  when  the  Holy  Spirit 
in  the  New  Testament  explains  to  us  this  feature  of 
the  Old,  of  which  he  himself  is  the  author,  we  should 
listen  to  him  with  reverence. 

V.  The  double  references  of  Scripture  are  essentially 
of  the  same  kinds  with  those  of  other  great  literatures. 
The  superficial  differences  are  like  those  which  distin- 
guish the  double  references  in  the  ancient  Greek  drama 
from  those  of  any  modern  literature.  The  writer  con- 
structs his  double  references  from  the  materials  acces- 
sible to  him.  The  novel  had  not  been  invented  in  the 
time  of  yEschylus ;  but  the  theatre  was  thronged,  and 
the  drama  had  reached  a  high  stage  of  development ; 
therefore  he  used  the  tragedy  as  the  vehicle  to  convey 
to  the  world  his  wealth  of  subtile  and  recondite 
allusions.  It  was  an  unwritten  law  of  the  Greek  stage 
that  the  play  should  present  only  the  characters  of 
mythology  ;  and  hence  ^schylus,  when  he  wished  to 
deal  with  some  question  of  politics  or  religion,  or  to 
praise  some  popular  hero  of  the  hour,  or  to  condemn 
some  misleader  of  the  people,  was  obliged  to  carry  back 
his  hearers  to  the  Homeric  age,  to  put  his  sentiments 
into  the  mouths  of  characters  either  fabulous  or  long 
since  dead,  and  to  present  these  personages  as  types 
and  images  of  those  living  statesmen  and  orators  and 
warriors  whom  he  wished  to  portray.  All  this  is  now 
changed.  Except  for  a  limited  number  who  support 
the  theatre,  the  novel  occupies  the  place  once  filled   by 


DOUBLE    REFERENCE  $2)3 

the  drama.  The  whole  apparatus  of  Homeric  gods  and 
goddesses  and  warriors  is  swept  into  oblivion,  and  the 
modern  novelist  creates  his  characters  from  his  own 
fancy.  Hence  the  secondary  references  of  the  "  Aga- 
memnon" differ  in  color  and  form  from  those  of  "  Ras- 
selas,"  and  "  Ernest  Maltravers,"  and  the  "  Marble 
Faun,"  and  "  Lothair,"  and  "  Wilhelm  Meister."  But 
the  same  mental  principle  is  apparent  in  the  ancient 
play  and  the  modern  novel,  producing  different  results 
simply  because  it  works  with  different  materials  and  in 
different  circumstances.  Thus  also  the  secondary  ref- 
erences of  Hebrew  literature  differ  on  the  surface  from 
those  of  Greek  ;  but  the  same  mental  principle  produced 
both.  The  Hebrew  writer  worked  with  materials  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  Greek,  and  in  different  circum- 
stances.     Hence 

i.  Instead  of  looking  back  to  the  fabulous  past,  and 
calling  down  the  gods  from  Olympus,  and  summoning 
Agamemnon  and  Achilles  and  Ulysses  from  the  grave, 
his  eyes  turned  forward. 

2.  The  Hebrew  prophet,  as  he  looked  forward,  was 
filled  and  dominated  by  the  resplendent  figure  of  the 
Messiah,  the  hope  of  Israel  and  of  the  world,  and  it 
was  natural  that  his  secondary  references  should  be 
colored  by  the  Messianic  idea,  of  which  the  Greek  poet 
was  wholly  destitute. 

3.  Every  nation  had  its  special  mission  appointed  by 
the  providence  of  God,  and  the  Greek  not  less  than  the 
Jewish.  But  "salvation  is  of  the  Jews  "  ;  the  Messiah 
was  "the  seed  of  Abraham  "  and  "the  seed  of  David"; 
and  hence  Hebrew  history  was  ordained  by  infinite 
wisdom  to  foreshadow  in  a  peculiar  manner  the  Messiah 


334        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

and  his  kingdom.  It  was  full  of  types  of  the  "  good 
things  to  come."  The  Hebrew  writer,  looking  forward 
and  not  backward,  filled  with  Messianic  anticipations, 
eager  to  set  forth  the  glories  of  a  golden  age  which  he 
dimly  foresaw,  instinctively  caught  at  the  types  and 
shadows  of  the  Messiah  which  Hebrew  history,  and 
especially  the  characters  and  events  of  his  own  time, 
presented  to  him  ;  and  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  or  the 
return  from  Babylon,  or  the  victories  of  David,  or  the 
peaceful  reign  of  Solomon,  became  the  materials  from 
which  he  constructed  his  glowing  portraitures  ;  or  he 
might  derive  a  part  of  his  colors  from  events  much 
more  casual  and  minute,  or  from  persons  much  more 
insignificant. 

Had  yEschylus  possessed  the  gift  of  prediction,  had 
he  been  filled  with  the  expectation  of  the  Messiah,  and 
had  the  history  of  his  people  presented  to  him  types 
and  shadows  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  his  second- 
ary references  would  have  been  Messianic,  like  those 
of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  ;  for  the  coming  Messiah  would 
have  occupied  in  his  mind  the  place  of  those  temporary 
and  local  questions  of  Greek  politics  and  religion  and 
art  which  engaged  his  attention. 

Thus  the  double  references  of  the  Scriptures  do  not 
stand  alone  ;  they  come  from  the  same  source  with  the 
multiple  references  of  all  great  literatures  ;  and  their 
peculiarities  arise  from  the  peculiar  conditions  of  the 
biblical  writers.  The  writers  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  studying  the  Old,  discovered  many  typical  and 
secondary  references,  and  quoted  them  in  their  just  ap- 
plication to  the  Messiah,  precisely  as  the  modern 
writer  discovers  the  same  feature  in  other  literatures, 


DOUBLE   REFERENCE  335 

and  quotes  many  passages  in  their  secondary  sense ; 
as,  for  example,  if  he  wishes  to  express  Goethe's  con- 
ception of  Lord  Byron,  or  of  the  spirit  of  poesy,  he 
makes  use  of  those  parts  of  « Faust "  in  which  Euphor- 
ion  appears. 


ILLOGICAL    REASONING 

PERHAPS  no  charge  against  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament  is  made  more  frequently  or  with 
greater  confidence  than  that  which,  if  sustained,  would 
convict  them  of  the  illogical  use  of  proof-texts  from 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  It  is  claimed  that  they  some- 
times reason  from  their  quotations  in  an  inconclusive 
and  incorrect  manner,  so  that  the  evidence  which  they 
adduce  does  not  prove  the  truth  which  they  seek  to 
support  by  means  of  it.  Even  Paley,  in  his  "  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,"  thinks  it  necessary  to  "dis- 
tinguish between  the  doctrines  of  the  apostles  and 
their  arguments  "  ;  he  holds  that  the  first  were  given 
them  by  revelation,  and  hence  were  true,  while  the 
second  may  have  been  their  own,  and  if  so,  were  liable 
to  a  certain  infusion  of  error.  This  is  but  a  specimen 
of  the  apologies  which  many  believing  writers  have 
deemed  it  necessary  to  offer  for  the  authors  of  the 
New  Testament  when  these  are  accused  of  using  the 
Old  in  an  unwarranted  manner.  I  have  considered,  in 
other  chapters  of  this  book,  several  passages  on  which 
this  criticism  is  based,  and  have  found  these  writers 
innocent  of  all  blame.  A  number  of  other  passages 
remain,  however,  and  I  shall  now  discuss  all  of  these  t<> 
which  my  attention  has  been  called,  following  the  order 
in  which  they  occur  in  the  New  Testament. 
33* 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  337 

I.  In  Matt.  22  :  32  ;  Mark  12  :  26  ;  and  Luke  20  :  37, 
our  Lord  quotes  from  Exod.  3  :  6  to  prove  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead.  Here  is  the  first  of  these  passages  : 
"  Have  ye  not  read  that  which  was  spoken  unto  you  by 
God,  saying,  I  am  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God 
of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob  ?  God  is  not  the  God 
of  the  dead,  but  of  the  living." 

There  are  two  grounds  on  which  it  has  been  denied 
that  this  passage  warrants  the  conclusion  drawn  from 
it.  The  first  is  advanced  by  some  writers  of  a  popular 
but  uncritical  kind.  "  Christ,"  they  say,  "  places  the 
emphasis  on  the  present  tense,  'I  am.'  But  in  the 
Hebrew  the  verb  is  not  expressed  at  all,  so  that  the 
emphasis  of  his  argument  is  false,  and  the  conclusion 
which  he  draws  from  the  tense  is  left  without  any  sup- 
port whatever  when  his  argument  is  examined  carefully." 

The  second  ground  is  advanced  by  writers  of  a 
higher  class,  who  perceive  that  our  Lord  does  not  de- 
rive his  argument  from  the  tense  of  a  verb  which  is 
absent  from  the  text,  and  who  themselves  are  willing 
to  translate  the  text  with  the  verb  in  the  present  tense. 
They  say,  however,  that  when  the  text  is  thus  trans- 
lated with  the  verb  in  the  present  tense,  it  affords  no 
support  to  the  conclusion  which  he  derived  from  it. 
Thus  Toy  and  his  school  find  nothing  more  in  the 
words  than  the  statement  of  Jehovah  that  "  I  am  the 
God  whom  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  worshiped  when 
they  were  on  the  earth." 

The  usual  escape  is  to  maintain,  as  Broadus  does, 
that  "  our  Lord  does  not  so  much  argue  from  the  pas- 
sage in  its  obvious  meaning,  as  authoritatively  expound 
it  in  a  deeper  sense."  But  there  is  no  need  of  such  a 
2  D 


338       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

refuge  as  this.  The  argument  is  not  weakened  in  the 
least  by  the  absence  of  the  verb  in  the  original.  Nor 
does  it  go  beyond  the  plain  and  obvious  sense  of  the 
passage.  That  this  is  so  is  apparent  from  the  follow- 
ing considerations  : 

1.  The  passage  as  quoted  by  Christ  in  the  Gospel 
by  Mark  has  no  verb.  This  evangelist  recurs  to  the 
Hebrew  form  of  the  quotation,  as  if  on  purpose  to 
show  that  the  argument  does  not  depend  upon  the  pres- 
ence of  the  verb  in  the  sentence. 

2.  The  argument  was  regarded  by  the  learned  Jews 
to  whom  it  was  addressed  as  masterly.  Luke  tells  us 
that  "  certain  of  the  scribes  answering  said,  Master, 
thou  hast  well  said.  For  they  durst  not  any  more  ask 
him  any  question."  Matthew  tells  us  that  the  effect 
upon  the  common  people  was  equally  great  :  "  When 
the  multitudes  heard  it,  they  were  astonished  at  his 
teaching."  That  the  argument  defeated  the  whole 
party  of  the  Sadducees,  learned  and  unlearned,  is  stated 
in  the  next  words  :  "  The  Pharisees,  when  they  heard 
that  he  had  put  the  Sadducees  to  silence,  gathered 
themselves  together."  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that  the 
argument  would  have  produced  such  an  immense  effect 
if  it  had  been  based  upon  the  tense  of  an  absent  verb. 
The  Sadducees  were  accustomed  to  debate,  and  many 
of  them  were  men  of  learning  and  of  keen  and  large 
mental  powers. 

3.  It  is  a  law  of  all  languages  that  words  which  are 
omitted   but   understood  are  to  be   considered   as   ex 
pressed.      In  all  languages  many  words  are  omitted  for 
the   sake   of  grace   or  of   brevity,   when    the   omission 
creates   no  obscurity;  and   in   such  eases  the  sentence 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  339 

is  construed  exactly  as  if  nothing  were  omitted.  This 
is  the  practice  of  the  very  writers  who  are  perplexed 
with  the  case  before  us.  They  show  the  folly  of  athe- 
ism from  the  text :  "  The  fool  hath  said  in  his  heart, 
There  is  no  God,"  knowing  that  in  the  Hebrew  there 
is  nothing  answering  to  the  words,  "  there  is."  In  the 
case  before  us,  no  one  doubts  that  the  verb,  were  it 
supplied,  would  have  to  be  in  a  form  which,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  context,  would  denote  present 
time.  All  translations  which  express  it  at  all  put  it  in 
the  present  tense.  To  make  a  point  of  its  absence, 
therefore,  is  to  commit  the  very  fault  with  which  our 
Saviour  is  charged,  since  it  is  to  draw  a  conclusion  that 
.the  premise  will  not  justify.  The  question  is,  whether, 
if  the  verb  in  the  present  tense  is  supplied,  the  reason- 
ing of  our  Lord  will  be  logical. 

4.  Let  us  grant  that  Jehovah  intended  to  say  noth- 
ing more  than  Toy  finds  in  his  words  :  "  I  am  the  God 
whom  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  worshiped  when  they 
were  on  the  earth."  The  inference  which  our  Lord 
draws  from  the  declaration  will  stand  as  necessary  and 
natural.  If  the  soul  perished  at  death,  if  man  were  but 
a  temporary  bubble,  God  would  not  become  our  God, 
since  he  would  have  no  occasion  to  reveal  himself  to 
us.  He  does  not  reveal  himself  to  sheep  and  oxen, 
and  is  not  their  God,  since  they  do  not  know  him  ;  and, 
if  we  were  as  ephemeral,  he  would  treat  us  as  he  treats 
them.  The  fact  stated  to  Moses,  that  he  revealed  him- 
self to  the  patriarchs,  and  entered  into  covenant  with 
them,  and  became  the  object  of  their  adoration,  shows 
that  they  were  not  creatures  of  the  moment,  and  that 
they  did  not  become  extinct  at  the  end  of  their  earthly 


340       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT    . 

pilgrimage.  Let  us  now  put  the  argument  into  this 
new  form  and  observe  how  complete  it  is  :  "  Have  ye 
not  read  that  which  was  spoken  unto  you  by  God,  say- 
ing, I  am  the  God  whom  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob 
worshiped  ?  He  does  not  become  the  God  of  persons 
destined  to  perish  in  a  day,  but  of  those  gifted  with 
life  ;  hence  he  is  not  at  any  time  the  God  of  the  dead, 
but  the  God  of  the  living." 

II.  The  one  hundred  and  tenth  Psalm  is  quoted 
more  frequently  in  the  New  Testament  than  any  other 
passage  of  the  Scriptures,  and  always  of  the  Messiah. 
The  Jews  held  it  to  be  Messianic,  and  therefore  the  ap- 
peal was  cogent  which  Christ  and  his  immediate  follow- 
ers made  to  it,  as  recorded  in  Matt.  22  :  44  ;  Mark  12  : 
36  ;  Luke  20  :  42,  43  ;  Acts  2  :  34,  35  ;  1  Cor.  15  :  25- 
27  ;  Heb.  1:13.  The  psalm  is  Messianic  on  its  very 
face,  and  all  attempts  to  apply  its  language  to  any 
of  the  Hebrew  monarchs  break  down  by  their  own 
weight.  Alexander  says  well  :  "  The  repeated,  explicit, 
and  emphatic  application  of  this  psalm  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament to  Jesus  Christ,  is  so  far  from  being  arbitrary 
or  at  variance  with  the  obvious  import  of  the  psalm  it- 
self, that  any  other  application  is  ridiculous." 

Difficulty  has  been  found  with  the  warlike  tone  of 
the  psalm,  especially  in  the  closing  part  of  it.  where 
the  hero  is  represented  as  "  filling  the  places  with 
dead  bodies"  and  "striking  through  the  head  in  many 
countries."  But  David  was  a  warrior  from  his  youth, 
and  it  was  natural  for  him  to  predict  the  conquests  of 
the  Messiah  with  martial  imagery.  The  same  imagery 
is  used  in  other  Messianic  passages,  as  Num.  24  :  17- 
19  ;  Ps.  2  :  9  ;  45  14,  5  ;   Zeph.  1  :  14-18  ;  I  lab.  3. 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  341 

Difficulty  has  been  found  by  Toy  with  the  fact  that  the 
king  of  the  psalm  is  "a  present  king,"  and  not  a  future 
one.  But  prophecy  often  speaks  of  the  Messiah  as  pres- 
ent, or  even  as  past,  the  prophet  standing  beside  him  or 
gazing  back  upon  his  sufferings  and  his  glory.  (See 
Isa.  53.)  "The  poetical  and  prophetical  style,"  Driver 
says,  "  is  characterized  by  the  singular  ease  and  rapid- 
ity with  which  the  writer  changes  his  standpoint,  at  one 
moment  speaking  of  a  scene  as  though  still  in  the  re- 
mote future ;  at  another  moment  describing  it  as 
though  present  to  the  gaze."  Toy,  of  course  does 
not  appeal  to  the  tenses  of  the  verbs,  for  an  argument 
drawn  from  the  Hebrew  tenses  alone  is  always  some- 
what insecure,  as  the  following  from  Driver's  now 
famous  little  book  on  "  The  Use  of  the  Tenses  in  He- 
brew "  will  show:  "The  Hebrew  language,  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  classical  languages,  in  which  the  devel- 
opment of  the  verb  is  so  rich  and  varied,  possesses 
only  two  of  those  modifications  which  are  commonly 
termed 'tenses.'  These  tenses  were  formerly  known 
by  the  familiar  names  of  past  and  future  ;  but  inas- 
much as  the  so-called  past  tense  is  continually  used  to 
describe  events  in  the  future,  and  the  so-called  future 
tense  to  describe  events  in  the  past,  it  is  clear  that 
these  terms,  adopted  from  languages  cast  in  a  totally 
different  mold  from  the  Hebrew  and  other  Semitic 
tongues,  are  in  the  highest  degree  inappropriate  and 
misleading."'  "The  tenses  in  Isa.  9  :  5  are  precisely 
identical  with  those  of  Gen.  21  :  1-3  ;  it  is  only  the 
context  which  tells  us  that  in  the  one  case  a  series  of 

1  Page  I. 


342       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

events  in  the  future,  and  in  the  other  in  the  past,  is 
being  described."  ' 

A  third  difficulty  is  found  with  the  fact  that  this 
psalm,  if  Messianic  at  all,  must  be  directly  so,  while  the 
Messianic  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  are  usually 
typical,  and  not  direct,  taking  some  living  person,  or  the 
nation  of  Israel,  as  "  a  shadow  of  the  good  things  to 
come."  It  is  true  that  the  majority  of  the  Messianic 
prophecies  are  typical ;  but  others  are  direct ;  and  the 
psalm  before  us  belongs  to  a  remarkable  class  of  predic- 
tions which  cannot,  even  by  great  torture,  be  made  to 
speak  of  any  one  save  Jesus  Christ.  Such  direct  proph- 
ecies are  Isa.  53  ;  Dan.  9  :  25,  26  ;  Zech.  9  :  9. 

Our  Lord  ascribes  the  psalm  to  David,  and  there  is 
absolutely  no  reason  to  call  the  Davidic  authorship  of 
it  in  question.  As  Alexander  has  said,  it  is  "  corrobo- 
rated by  the  internal  character  of  the  composition,  its 
laconic  energy,  its  martial  tone,  its  triumphant  confi- 
dence, and  its  resemblance  to  other  undisputed  psalms 
of  David."  The  effort  is  made  to  bring  the  psalm 
down  to  the  Maccabean  age,  not  on  the  ground  that  its 
language  is  of  this  later  age,  but  on  the  ground  that  we 
might  hope  to  find  a  Jewish  king  at  that  time  who  was 
also  a  priest,  to  whom  it  could  be  said  : 

Thou  art  a  priest  forever 
After  the  order  of  Melchizedek. 

"The  direct  recognition  of  a  Jerusalem  king  as  priest," 
writes  Toy,  "  seems  to  suit  only  one  period  of  Jewish 
history,  namely,  the  Maccabean,  when  a  Levitical  dy- 
nasty sat  on  the  throne."     The  Maccabees  were  indeed 

1  Page  4. 


ILLOGICAL  REASONING  343 

priests  by  legal  descent ;  but  the  psalm  speaks  of  one 
who  was  to  be  priest,  not  by  legal  descent,  not  after  the 
order  of  Aaron,  but  by  extra-legal  title,  "  after  the 
order  of  Melchizedek."  Besides,  of  whom  but  of 
Christ  could  it  be  said  :  "Thou  art  a  priest  forever"  ? 
Thus  on  every  ground  the  psalm  must  be  regarded  as 
referring  to  our  Lord  directly. 

Many  hostile  critics  accuse  our  Lord  of  ignorance, 
assuming,  without  the  least  evidence,  as  we  have  seen, 
that  the  psalm  which  he  ascribes  to  David  was  written 
in  the  Maccabean  period,  nine  hundred  years  later. 
Many  critics,  sincerely  friendly  to  Christianity,  have 
sought  to  meet  this  objection  by  claiming  that  our 
Lord  in  his  argument  merely  took  his  Jewish  adversa- 
ries on  their  own  ground,  and  did  not  intend  either  to 
affirm  or  to  deny  the  Davidic  authorship  of  the  psalm 
to  which  he  appealed.  The  Jews  ascribed  it  to  David ; 
and  he  reasoned  from  their  belief  in  reference  to  its 
author.  He  said  :  "  You  hold  that  David  wrote  the 
one  hundred  and  tenth  Psalm  under  the  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit.  You  hold  also  that  the  Messiah  was 
to  be  the  son  of  David.  Will  you  tell  me,  therefore, 
how  it  was  that  David  called  the  Messiah  his  Lord  if 
the  Messiah  was  to  be  his  son,  and  no  greater  than  his 
son  ?  "  Now  such  arguments  are  perfectly  legitimate  ; 
they  are  recognized  as  fair  in  all  schools  of  debate  and 
inquiry;  and  our  Lord  might  have  employed  this 
method  of  leading  men  to  the  truth  without  subjecting 
himself  to  any  just  blame.  But  when  a  person  em- 
ploys this  mode  of  reasoning  he  should  say  so,  and 
should  not  profess  to  reason  on  other  grounds.  Our 
Lord  does  not  say  so,  and  does  profess  to  reason  on 


344       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

other  grounds  ;  for  he  affirms  for  himself  his  belief 
that  David  wrote  the  psalm,  declaring,  as  reported  by 
Mark :  "  David  himself  saith  in  the  Holy  Spirit." 
Peter  also  declared  the  same  thing  on  the  day  of  Pen- 
tecost :  "  David  ascended  not  into  the  heavens  :  but  he 
saith  himself : 

"  The  Lord  said  unto  my  Lord  : 
Sit  thou  on  my  right  hand, 
Till  I  make  thine  enemies  thy  footstool." 

While,  therefore,  it  would  have  been  perfectly  proper 
for  Christ  and  his  apostles  to  reason  from  the  beliefs 
of  their  hearers,  without  affirming  those  beliefs,  it  is 
perfectly  evident  that  they  did  not  do  so  in  the  case  be- 
fore us.  Nor  is  there  the  slightest  occasion  to  attrib- 
ute this  course  to  them,  since  there  is  not  the  slightest 
occasion  to  doubt  that  David  wrote  the  psalm,  guided 
by  the  Spirit  of  inspiration,  and  foreseeing  that  the 
Messiah  should  be  both  his  Lord  and  his  son. 

III.  There  has  been  much  unnecessary  debate  over 
the  quotation  of  I  lab.  2  :  3,  4  at  Rom.  1:17  and  Gal. 
3:11:  "The  just  shall  live  by  faith."  The  meaning 
of  the  original  passage  is  well  stated  by  Toy : 

The  prophet  is  predicting  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldeans 
(about  b.  c.  606),  whose  invasion  he  has  announced  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter .v  He  goes  up  to  his  watchtower,  and  is  com- 
manded to  write  his  vision  plainly,  that  the  people  may  be  con- 
soled by  it  ;  the  fulfillment,  he  is  told,  will  surely  come,  though 
it  may  be  delayed  ;  the  invading  enemy  shall  lie  destroyed,  the 
earth  shall  be  idled  with  the  knowledge  of  the  glory  of  Yahve 
(ver.  14),  shall  fully  see  his  glory  manifested  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Chaldeans.^.  His  description  of  the  invaders  begins  with 
verse  4,   in   which  it  is  said  of  them  that  they  are   puffed   up, 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  345 

haughty  of  soul,  and  not  upright  ;  and  this  indictment  is  illus- 
trated and  expanded  in  the  rest  of  the  chapter.  But  in  verse  4 
it  is  added,  in  contrast  with  this  haughty  wickedness,  on  which 
shall  come  destruction,  that  the  just,  who  hold  firmly  to  Yahve, 
shall  escape  destruction,  and  live  by  his  constancy;  or  the  mean- 
ing is  that,  in  spite  of  the  wicked  arrogancy  of  the  enemy,  the 
just  shall  be  preserved  alive.^)  The  Hebrew  word  here  rendered 
"constancy,"  means  "firmness,  steadfastness,"  of  the  body, 
as  in  Exod.  17:12  (Moses'  hands,  upheld  by  Aaron  and  Hur, 
were  "  steady  ")  ;  or  of  the  moral  nature  of  God  (Deut.  32  :  4  : 
"  a  God  of  faithfulness  and  without  perverseness,  just  and  upright 
is  he")  ;  and  of  man  (Prov.  12  :  22:  "  lips  of  deceit  are  an  abomi- 
nation to  Yahve,  but  they  that  do  faithfulness  are  his  delight)  ; 
the  common  signification  is  '  moral  and  religious  fidelity  and 
constancy,  faithfulness  to  all  obligations,  whether  to  God  or  to 
man. '  "  In  this  is  certainly  involved,  according  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment conception,  trust  in  God  in  a  general  sense  ;  but  the 
prominent  idea  is  steadfast  adherence  to  him  in  true-hearted 
obedience.  Such  a  faithful,  obedient  man,  says  the  prophet, 
shall  be  kept  alive  in  this  time  of  turmoil  and  death. 


All  this,  concerning  the  scope  of  the  prophetic  pas- 
sage and  the  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  rendered 
"faith,"  I  heartily  accept.  But  I  as  heartily  dissent 
when  Toy  contrasts  this  meaning  with  that  of  the 
word  "  faith "  in  "  Romans  and  Galatians,"  passages 
illustrating  which  he  gives  in  full.  "  For  therein  is 
revealed  a  righteousness  of  God  by  faith  unto  faith  : 
as  it  is  written,  But  the  righteous  shall  live  by  faith  " 
(Rom.  1  :  17).  "Now  that  no  man  is  justified  by  the 
law  in  the  sight  of  God  is  evident  :  for,  The  righteous 
shall  live  by  faith,  and  the  law  is  not  of  faith  ;  but  he 
that  doeth  them  shall  live  in  them"  (Gal.  3  :  12,  13). 
The  quotation  in  these  epistles,  he  says,  "  is  the 
specific    acceptance    of    Christ,   whereby   the    believer 


346       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

is  justified,  apart  from  works."  The  Pauline  word 
"faith"  includes  this,  but  it  also  includes  far  more. 
There  has  seldom  been  given  a  better  definition  of  the 
Pauline  word  than  the  definition  which  I  have  just 
quoted  from  Toy,  as  that  of  the  Hebrew  word  in  the 
prophetic  passage :  "  steadfast  adherence  to  God  in 
true-hearted  obedience."  The  whole  argument  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the 
Galatians  is  that  such  "  steadfast  adherence  to  God  in 
true-hearted  obedience,"  distinguished  from  all  kinds 
of  legalism,  as  the  serving  in  the  letter  and  not  in  the 
spirit,  the  superstitious  resort  to  rites  and  ceremonies, 
the  practice  of  mere  external  moralities  in  which  is  no 
filial  love,  brings  the  grace  of  God  to  man,  and  hence 
is  the  condition  of  our  salvation.  To  say  that  the 
"  faith  "  of  the  apostle  is  nothing  more  than  "  the  spe- 
cific acceptance  of  Christ,"  is  to  forget  all  his  long 
demonstration  that  Abraham  was  justified  by  faith, 
and  that  David  "  pronounceth  blessing  "  upon  the  man 
of  "faith."  ^God  is  the  object  of  faith;  and  Christ  is 
the  object  of  faith  because  he  is  God  manifest  to  faith. 
Toy  himself  takes  a  broader  view  in  another  place  : 
"  More  generally  stated,  Paul's  position  is,  that  no 
man  can  gain  God's  favor  by  obedience  to  the  moral 
law ;  since  perfect  obedience — less  than  which  God 
would  not  accept — is  impossible  to  man  ;  it  is  only  by 
a  transformation  of  the  soul,  and  oneness  with  God, 
that  salvation  can  be  attained  ;  and  such  transforma- 
tions and  oneness  are  represented  by  trust  and  identi- 
cal with  it." 

The  entire  argument  of  the  apostle  in  these  epistles 
is  to   show  that   faith    is   the   condition  of  justification 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  347 

now,  that  it  always  was  the  condition  of  justification, 
even  in  the  age  of  the  patriarchs,  and  that  legalism, 
bondage  to  the  letter,  slavish  performance  of  religious 
rites,  moralities  without  reference  to  God  and  without 
heart,  cannot  justify  to-day,  and  could  never  justify. 
Thus  the  thought  of  the  prophet,  to  sum  up  what  has 
just  been  said,  fits  into  the  argument  of  the  apostle 
exactly  and  sustains  it  cogently  ;  and  it  is  only  by  mis- 
understanding one  or  the  other  that  any  discrepancy 
between  the  two  can  be  discovered. 

This  may  be  made  even  more  apparent  by  a  closer 
inspection  of  both.  That  the  "just  man"  of  the 
prophet  is  not  at  all  the  legally  "just  man"  of  the 
Pharisees,  Toy  would  be  the  first  to  maintain.  In  no 
case  does  an  Old  Testament  prophet  commend  the 
righteousness  of  the  law  ;  the  righteousness  required 
by  the  prophets  is  always  the  "  steadfast  adherence  to 
God  in  true-hearted  obedience"  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment enjoins.  The  obedience  which  they  require  is 
never  legal ;  it  is  necessarily  imperfect,  yet  it  is  peni- 
tent, warm,  grateful,  loving,  trusting,  ethical.  A  man 
possessed  of  this  righteousness,  Habbakuk  says,  shall 
live  by  his  "  steadfast  adherence  to  God  in  true-hearted 
obedience,"  even  when  destruction  overtakes  others. 
There  is  an  eternal  principle  underlying  the  prophetic 
words  ;  "God  changeth  not  "  ;  he  is  always  propitious 
to  such  men  ;  and  hence  they  are  always  saved.  Such 
is  the  argument  which  the  apostle  derives  from  the 
prophet ;  and  it  flows  quite  in  the  forms  of  logic. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  argument  from  this  par- 
ticular quotation  is  found  only  in  Galatians,  and  not  at 
all  in  Romans,  where  Toy  places  it. 


34S       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

IV.  At  Rom.  3  :  10-18  the  Apostle  Paul  throws  to- 
gether a  number  of  sentences  from  the  Old  Testament 
in  a  single  passage,  making  what  I  have  called  in  the 
fifth  chapter  of  this  book  a  "  composite  quotation." 
The  majority  of  critics  suppose  that  the  fact  to  be 
proved  by  the  quotation  is  the  universal  sinfulness  of 
man.  On  this  supposition  a  difficulty  has  been  found 
by  a  few  of  them  ;  for  while  some  of  the  sentences 
quoted  declare  the  universal  sinfulness  of  our  race  in 
words  of  the  strongest  kind,  others  refer  only  to  par- 
ticular persons  or  classes,  as  the  especially  wicked 
among  the  Jews  known  to  the  writers.  Of  the  former 
kind  are  all  the  opening  sentences  of  the  passage,  con- 
tained in  verses  10-12,  taken  from  Eccl.  7  :  20  ;  Ps.  14  : 
2»  3  5  53:3'  4-  Of  tne  second  kind  are  all  the  other 
sentences  of  the  passage,  embracing  verses  13-18, 
from  Ps.  5  :  10  ;  Isa.  59  :  7,  8  ;  Ps.  36  :  1. 

The  objection  is  that  in  these  latter  sentences  the 
apostle  attempts  to  prove  a  universal  proposition  by 
evidence  which  covers  only  a  limited  number  of  cases. 
Those  who  entertain  this  objection  forget  their  logic. 
The  inductive  method  of  reasoning,  which  men  have 
always  been  obliged  to  employ,  and  which  is  emphatic- 
ally the  method  of  modern  science,  is  exactly  the 
method  pursued  here.  Thus  the  universality  of  the 
law  of  gravitation  is  proved  by  observations  made  in 
but  a  petty  sphere  of  the  universe. 

Our  analysis  of  these  quotations  has  shown  that  the 
apostle  uses  two  kinds  of  evidence  ;  first,  statements 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  assert  the  universality  of 
sin  ;  secondly,  statements  of  the  Old  Testament  which 
call  attention  to  the  manifestations  of  sin  in  individuals 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  349 

and  classes.  The  first  proof  is  the  so-called  "  perfect 
induction "  of  modern  logicians,  and  the  second,  in- 
duction in  the  ordinary  scientific  sense.  The  apostle 
weaves  these  together  in  a  single  masterly  argument. 
Could  any  proof  be  more  cogent  than  passages  of 
Scripture  which  teach  the  universality  of  sin  followed 
by  passages  which  illustrate  and  enforce  this  teaching 
by  examples  of  the  extreme  manifestation  of  sin  in  in- 
dividuals and  classes  ? 

Thus  far  my  reply  assumes  the  correctness  of  the 
ordinary  view  of  critics,  that  the  fact  to  be  proved  is 
the  universal  sinfulness  of  man.  A  very  strong  minor- 
ity, however,  maintain  that  the  apostle  is  here  dealing 
with  the  Jews  alone.  Thus  Baumgarten-Crusius  :  "Now 
follows  a  long  passage  of  Old  Testament  expressions 
gathered  together,  the  sense  of  which  is  given  in  verse 
19.  Its  reference  is  to  the  Israelitish  people;  and  the 
double  reference  to  the  Jews  and  the  heathen,  discov- 
ered by  Paulus  and  others,  cannot  be  maintained."  On 
this  ground,  all  possible  difficulty  with  the  passage  dis- 
appears. The  proposition  to  be  proved  is  that  the  Is- 
raelites, notwithstanding  their  superior  privileges,  were 
sinful.  The  proof  is  of  two  kinds.  First,  the  Scrip- 
tures declare  that  all  men  are  sinful,  including  both 
Gentiles  and  Jews.  Secondly,  sin  had  a  very  remark- 
able and  extreme  development  among  the  Jews,  as  their 
own  inspired  writers  testify. 

In  either  case  the  apostle  marshals  in  a  logical  order 
the  different  extracts  from  the  Old  Testament  which 
he  welds  together  in  his  argument.  Thus  Meyer : 
"The  arrangement  of  the  passage  is  such  that  at  first 
the  sinful  condition  of  men  is  pointed  out  in  verses  10- 
2  E 


35°       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

12  ;  then  their  sinful  practices  in  speech,  verses  13,  14  j 
and  deed,  verses  15-17;  and  then  the  sinful  source 
from  which  all  these  arise,  verse  18." 

V.  The  quotation  of  Mai.  1  :  2,  3  at  Rom.  9:13  has 
been  criticised  on  the  ground  that  the  Apostle  Paul 
takes  the  words  out  of  their  original  meaning,  and 
uses  them  as  a  proof-text  after  thus  distorting  them. 
The  case  is  like  this  :  Paul  is  showing  that  not  all  the 
descendants  of  Abraham  are  heirs  of  the  promises 
made  to  him,  and  instances  Esau,  who  was  rejected  by- 
God  even  before  his  birth.  To  prove  this  statement, 
he  cites  Gen.  25  :  23,  where  God  says  to  Rebecca: 
"  The  elder  shall  serve  the  younger."  He  then  adds 
the  verse  from  Mai.  1  :  2,  3  :  "  Jacob  have  I  loved,  but 
Esau  have  I  hated."  The  objection  is,  that  by  Jacob 
and  Esau  the  prophet  means  not  persons  but  nations, 
and  refers  to  the  national  histories  of  Israel  and  Edom  ; 
while  the  apostle  interprets  him  as  if  he  meant  the 
persons  Jacob  and  Esau.  Thus  Pocock :  "  What  is 
here  said  by  Malachi  relates  to  the  preference  shown 
to  the  posterity  of  Jacob  over  that  of  Esau."  It  we 
should  adopt  this  view,  the  quotation  would  still  pre- 
sent no  real  difficulty  ;  and  we  should  say  with  Riick- 
ert  :  "  It  is  not  strictly  a  proof-text,  but  only  a  confirm- 
ation." The  view,  however,  is  rejected  by  some  of 
the  greatest  of  the  modern  expositors,  as  Meyer,  for 
example,  who  says:  "Like  Paul,  the  prophet  himself 
means  by  Jacob  and  Esau,  not  the  two  peoples,  Israel 
and  Edom,  but  the  persons  of  the  two  brothers."  In 
this  case,  the  quotation  is  a  cogent  proof-text,  and  not 
merely  confirmatory  and  illustrative. 

VI.  The  composite  quotation  of   Hosca   2  :  23  ;    I  : 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  35I 

10  at  Rom.  9:25,  26  is  perhaps  oftener  accused  of 
faulty  argument  than  any  other.  Toy  represents  the 
extreme  view  of  the  objectors  :  "The  prophet's  word," 
he  writes,  "  refers  solely  to  Israel.  Now  cast  off,  the 
nation  shall  after  a  time  be  taken  again  into  favor  with 
God,  and  called  his  sons.  Paul  identifies  the  '  Not  my 
people '  (the  rejected  Israel  of  Hosea)  with  the  Gen- 
tiles, who,  formerly  aliens  from  God,  were  now  in  the 
gospel  accepted  by  him  as  his  people." 

There  are  three  errors  in  this  criticism.  First,  the 
real  subject  of  the  sacred  writer  is  the  sovereignty  of 
God  in  the  rejection  and  the  reception  of  men  ;  and 
the  call  of  the  Christian  Jews  and  Gentiles  is  presented 
only  as  an  example  of  it.  Secondly,  the  writer  is  think- 
ing chiefly  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  Gentiles  only  inci- 
dentally. Thirdly,  he  sustains  his  point  by  a  use  of 
Scripture  exactly  like  that  which  all  Christian  writers 
adopt  when  they  reason  about  any  principle  of  the  di- 
vine government.     I  shall  now  justify  these  statements. 

Let  the  reader  open  his  Bible  at  the  ninth  chapter 
of  Romans  and  follow  the  argument  of  the  apostle  for 
himself.  With  this  ninth  chapter  the  writer  begins  his 
profound  and  touching  discussion  of  the  rejection  of 
the  Jews,  which  he  pursues  through  three  chapters, 
so  that  the  main  subject  of  the  entire  section  is  the 
Jews  and  not  the  Gentiles.  In  that  part  of  the  section 
in  which  the  quotation  occurs,  the  writer  is  showing 
that  the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  in  so  far  as  they  were 
not  believers  in  Christ,  was  an  act  of  divine  sovereignty 
(9  :  14-22).  But  some  Jews  and  some  Gentiles  have  be- 
lieved, and  their  reception  into  the  favor  of  God  is  also 
an  act  of  divine  sovereignty.    To  say  that  the  writer  is 


352       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

here  speaking  of  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  to  the 
church,  is  to  forget  his  own  declaration  that  he  has  in 
mind  all  Christians,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  :  "  Even 
us  whom  he  hath  called,  not  of  the  Jews  only,  but  also 
of  the  Gentiles  "  (ver.  24).  Nor  is  it  the  mere  admis- 
sion of  these  persons  to  the  church  that  he  contem- 
plates ;  it  is  their  admission  by  an  act  of  divine  sover- 
eignty, for  the  sovereignty  of  God  in  calling  and  re- 
jecting whom  he  will,  is  the  chief  subject  of  contem- 
plation throughout  the  whole  section.  That  the  sover- 
eignty of  God,  in  calling  a  remnant  of  the  Jews  to  his 
kingdom,  lies  nearer  his  thought  than  the  call  of  the 
Gentile  Christians,  is  evident  from  the  tenor  of  the 
whole  section,  and  also,  as  Hofmann  points  out,  from 
the  fact  that  immediately  after  our  quotation  he  tells 
us  what  "Isaiah  crieth  concerning  Israel."  He  men- 
tions both  Christian  Jews  and  Gentiles  as  alike  illus- 
trating the  gracious  sovereignty  of  God,  but  thinks 
chiefly  of  the  Christian  Jews. 

Let  us,  however,  grant  that  the  quotation  is  designed 
to  refer  solely  to  the  sovereignty  of  God  in  the  call  of 
the  Gentiles,  as  the  majority  of  commentators  hold. 
Does  it  prove  what  the  apostle  uses  it  to  prove?  Let 
the  reader  open  his  Bible  at  Hosea  2  :  14,  and  study 
the  whole  passage,  and  see  how  the  recovery  of  Israel 
is  represented  as  resulting  altogether  from  the  gracious 
act  of  God  in  courting  and  winning  the  adulterous  wife: 

Behold,  I  will  allure  her 

And  bring  her  into  the  wilderness, 

And  speak  comfortably  unto  her, 

And  I  will  give  her  her  vineyards  from  thence, 

And  the  \  alley  oi  A<  hor  for  .1  door  of  hope  : 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  353 

And  she  shall  sing  there  as  in  the  days  of  her  youth, 

And  as  in  the  day  when  she  came  up  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt. 

And  it  shall  be  at  that  day,  saith  Jehovah, 

That  thou  shalt  call  me  Ishi  ; 

And  shalt  call  me  no  more  Baali. 

For  I  will  take  away  the  names  of  the  Baalim  out  of  her  mouth, 

And  they  shall  no  more  be  mentioned  by  their  name. 

The  restoration  of  the  wife  is  thus  the  result  of  gra- 
cious seeking  by  the  divine  husband,  who  takes  the 
initiative  and  uses  the  means  adapted  to  win  her  back, 
according  to  his  supreme  purpose.  No  passage  could 
better  illustrate  and  prove  the  sovereignty  of  God  in 
saving  men,  whether  they  are  Jews  or  Gentiles,  for 
none  has  ever  portrayed  more  cogently  and  tenderly 
his  fixed  purpose,  his  advances  to  the  erring,  his  pa- 
tient efforts  to  recover  them  to  himself,  and  his  final 
success.  Here  as  in  many  other  places  the  Apostle 
Paul  quotes  a  fragment  from  the  Old  Testament,  con- 
scious that  its  whole  context  will  support  him  in  the 
use  he  makes  of  it.  In  this  instance  he  wishes  to  show 
us  by  an  example  the  attitude  of  God  toward  all  men, 
and  his  sovereign  grace  in  their  salvation.  If  it  is 
proper  to  reason  at  all  from  examples,  this  is  correct 
reasoning.  If  it  is  improper,  then  the  whole  science  of 
induction,  which  consists  of  reasoning  from  examples, 
is  a  delusion.  Our  ordinary  inductive  reasoning  is 
based  upon  the  stability  and  uniformity  of  nature  ;  but 
if  nature  is  stable  and  uniform,  it  is  because  its  Creator 
and  upholder  is  stable  and  uniform.  He  "  changeth 
not,"  and  is  "no  respecter  of  persons,"  dealing  with 
Jew  and  Gentile  by  one  method  of  justice  and  love. 
We  may  therefore  reason  inductively  of  his  dealings 


354       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

with  our  race,  and  have  no  doubt  of  our  conclusions. 
If  he  courted  apostate  Israel  of  old,  and  "called  them 
his  people  which  were  not  his  people,  and  her  beloved 
which  was  not  beloved,"  he  will  court  the  Gentiles 
with  the  same  sovereign  and  prevailing  love  ;  for  it  is 
his  nature  to  love,  to  seek  the  lost,  and  to  use  all  the 
resources  of  his  sovereign  grace  for  their  recovery. 
Dr.  Toy  is  a  preacher,  and  whenever  he  preaches  and 
deduces  some  principle  of  the  divine  government  from 
a  historic  example,  he  reasons  in  this  way.  If  this 
method  of  reasoning  is  invalid,  no  history  or  prophecy 
of  holy  Scripture  would  be  of  use  to  us.  If  it  is  invalid, 
all  Christian  literature  is  wrong,  for  it  appeals  con- 
stantly to  biblical  history  and  prophecy  for  the  warn- 
ings and  encouragements  which  it  utters  to  us. 

Turning  now  to  Hosea  i  :  10,  the  source  of  the 
second  part  of  the  quotation,  the  same  gracious  sov- 
ereignty is  asserted.     In  verse  6  God  says  : 

I  will  no  more  have  mercy 

Upon  the  house  of  Israel, 

That  I  should  in  any  wise  pardon  them. 

In  verses  6  and  7  he  declares  that  he  will  have  mercy 
on  the  house  of  Judah  but  not  on  the  house  of  Israel. 
Then  in  verse  10  he  breaks  out  into  a  strain  of  com- 
passion and  declares  that  ultimately  even  Israel  shall 
find  mercy  and   be  multiplied. 

Thus  both  the  chapters  from  which  the  New  Testa- 
ment writer  quotes  relate  to  the  same  things  ;  both 
speak  in  a  tone  of  rovalty,  and  both  illustrate  the 
divine  sovereignty  in  the  rejection  and  the  reception 
of   men,  which    is    the    immediate    theme.      The  divine 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  355 

sovereignty  is  set  forth  in  the  first  quotation  more 
clearly  than  in  the  second  ;  but  the  second  states  the 
gracious  result  of  it  in  the  history  of  Israel  more  clearly 
than  the  first. 

Meyer  would  account  for  the  quotation  by  saying 
that  the  apostle  regards  the  recovery  of  obdurate  Israel 
as  a  type  of  the  recovery  of  the  Gentiles  by  God.  This 
view  may  be  accepted  if  by  a  type  we  may  understand 
an  example  which  sets  forth  some  principle  of  the 
divine  government.  Tholuck  says  that  this  quotation 
and  those  from  Isaiah  which  immediately  follow  it,  are 
not  intended  for  proof,  and  are  brought  forward  only 
because  their  language  is  appropriate  to  the  case  in 
hand.  I  have  considered  this  method  of  quoting,  which 
is  adopted  in  all  literatures,  in  the  eight  chapter  of  this 
book.  There  could  be  no  objection  to  the  view  of 
Tholuck  were  there  any  real  difficulty  which  forbade 
us  to  regard  these  quotations  as  proofs  of  a  proposi- 
tion. 

VII.  The  quotation  of  Isa.  10  :  22,  23  ;  1:9  at 
Rom.  9  :  27-29,  is  accused,  though  less  vehemently 
than  the  preceding,  and  is  of  the  same  kind.  The  argu- 
ment is  this:  God  proceeds  as  a  sovereign  in  the  rejec- 
tion of  Israel  in  general  and  the  salvation  of  a  remnant. 
He  did  so  of  old,  and  hence  we  may  know  that  he  does 
so  now. 

VIII.  At  Rom.  10  :  19-21,  the  Apostle  Paul  quotes 
two  passages  to  show  that  the  Jews  had  been  warned 
in  their  own  Scriptures  of  their  rejection  and  of  the 
acceptance  of  the  Gentiles.  He  is  accused  of  mis- 
applying the  Old  Testament  in  both  cases. 

The  first  quotation  is  from  Deut.  32  :  21: 


356       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

I  will  provoke  you  to  jealousy  with  that  which  is  no  nation, 
With  a  nation  void  of  understanding  will  I  anger  you. 

On  which  Toy  comments  thus:  "  The  threat  in  Deu- 
teronomy is  that  Israel  shall  be  conquered  or  defeated 
by  an  apparently  inferior  people  ;  this  is  spiritualized 
by  Paul  into  a  prediction  of  the  loss  of  religious  supe- 
riority, with  special  application  to  the  transfer  of 
spiritual  privileges  and  life  to  the  Gentiles  under  the 
gospel."  This  is  stated  with  entire  assurance,  as  if 
there  could  be  no  doubt,  as  if  there  were  no  other  ten- 
able view.  The  great  majority  of  critics,  however, 
hold  that  the  passage  refers  literally  to  the  reception 
of  the  Gentiles  into  the  divine  favor.  Subjugation  by 
war  would  hardly  be  called  "provoking  to  jealousy." 

The  second  quotation  is  from   Isa.  65  :  1,  2.     The 
apostle  writes  :  "  Isaiah  is  very  bold,  and  saith, 

I  was  found  of  them  that  sought  me  not; 

I  became  manifest  unto  them  that  asked  not  of  me. 

But  as  to  Israel  he  saith,  All  the  day  long  did  I  spread 
out  my  hands  unto  a  disobedient  and  gainsaying  people." 
Thus  the  apostle  regards  the  first  verse  of  this  quota- 
tion as  referring  to  the  Gentiles,  and  the  second  to  the 
Jews.  Many  critics  refer  both  verses  to  Israel,  and 
they  construe  both  verses,  therefore,  as  a  single  sen- 
tence, and  not  as  two  sentences.  There  is  no  ground 
for  this  divergence  from  the  apostolic  interpretation. 
That  the  first  verse  refers  to  the  Gentiles  and  the 
second  to  the  Jews,  is  held  by  interpreters  of  all 
schools,  as,  for  example,  Delitzsch,  Hofmann,  Stier, 
Nagelsbach,  Alexander,  I  lodge,  and  Alford. 

IX.    The  quotation  at  Rom.  11  :  8  is  from  Isa.  29  : 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  357 

10  and  Deut.  29  :  4,  and  is  one  of  the  composite  quo- 
tations considered  in  our  fifth  chapter  :  "  As  it  is  writ- 
ten, God  gave  them  a  spirit  of  stupor,  eyes  that  they 
should  not  see,  and  ears  that  they  should  not.  hear, 
unto  this  day."  When  Toy  says  that  "  Paul  finds  in 
these  words  a  prediction  of  the  indifference  of  Israel 
to  the  gospel,"  he  gives  no  hint  that  any  other  view  is 
even  worth  mentioning.  The  vast  majority  of  com- 
mentators, however,  hold  that  Paul  does  not  regard 
them  as  a  prediction  at  all,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word.  Hodge  expresses  the  general  consensus  of 
scholars  as  follows  :  "  The  import  of  such  citations 
frequently  is,  that  what  was  fulfilled  in  the  days  of  the 
prophet  was  more  completely  accomplished  at  the  time 
referred  to  by  the  New  Testament  writer."  So  also 
Alford  :  "  If  we  are  to  regard  these  passages  as  merely 
analogous  instances  of  the  divine  dealings,  we  must  re- 
member that  the  perspective  of  prophecy,  in  stating 
such  cases,  embraces  all  analogous  ones,  the  divine 
dealings  being  self-consistent,  and  especially  that  great 
one,  in  which  the  words  are  most  prominently  ful- 
filled." 

X.  The  quotation  of  Isa.  45  :  23  at  Rom.  14  :  11 
is  adduced  as  another  instance  of  misapplied  Scripture. 
The  New  Testament  writer  is  dissuading  the  Roman 
Christians  from  harsh  and  uncharitable  judgments  of 
one  another.  "  But  thou,  why  dost  thou  judge  thy 
brother  ?  or  thou,  again,  why  dost  thou  set  at  nought 
thy  brother  ?  for  we  shall  all  stand  before  the  judgment 
seat  of  God.     For  it  is  written, 

As  I  live,  saith  the  Lord,  to  me  every  knee  shall  bow, 
And  every  tongue  shall  confess  to  God. 


358         QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

So  then  each  one  of  us  shall  give  account  of  himself 
to  God." 

The  comment  of  Toy  on  the  passage  is  as  follows  : 
"  In  Isaiah,  God  announces  that  all  nations  shall  aban- 
don their  idols  and  worship  the  God  of  Israel,  bend 
the  knee  to  him  in  token  of  allegiance,  swear  by  him 
as  their  God.  The  apostle,  laying  the  stress  on  the 
term  '  confess '  (which,  however,  is  not  properly  in  the 
Hebrew),  finds  here  a  prediction  ('  for  it  is  written  ')  of 
the  last  judgment  ;  we  must  not  judge  our  brethren,  says 
he,  seeing  we  shall  all  be  judged  by  God."  It  is  im- 
plied in  this  comment  that  the  apostle  has  misused  his 
proof-text  in  three  particulars:  i.  The  text  speaks  of 
national  allegiance  to  God  ;  and  he  makes  it  refer  to 
the  personal  accountability  of  each  individual.  2.  He 
lays  the  stress  of  his  argument  on  the  word  "  confess," 
which  the  Hebrew  does  not  contain.  3.  He  regards 
the  text  as  a  prediction  of  the  last  judgment,  for  he 
cites  it  with  the  formula,  "  for  it  is  written."  The  first 
and  second  of  these  criticisms  are  groundless  and  the 
third  is  not  cogent,  as  I  shall  now  show. 

1.  The  text  quoted  says  absolutely  nothing  about 
national  allegiance,  but  speaks  solely  of  individual  sub- 
mission ;  it  speaks  of  "every  knee  "  and  "  every  tongue," 
not  of  every  nation.  Toy  himself  translates  both  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Greek  by  these  words  ;  nor  does  he 
tell  us  by  what  possible  agency  "  every  knee  shall  bow  " 
can  be  made  to  mean  "  all  nations  shall  bend  the  knee 
in  token  of  allegiance  "  ;  nor  is  there  a  syllable  in  the 
context  to  change  or  modify  in  any  manner  the  plain 
and  obvious  significance  of  the  words. 

2.  There   is   just   as   little  evidence   of    the  second 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  359 

statement  of  Toy  as  of  the  first.  The  apostle  does 
not  lay  stress  on  the  term  "confess  "  ;  the  stress  of  the 
thought  is  given  to  the  words  "  every  knee  "  and  "  every 
tongue";  for  the  assertion  is  that  every  individual  is 
accountable  to  God  for  himself.  Thus  Alford,  in  sub- 
stance :  "  The  stress  is  on  '  of  himself  '  ;  and  the  next 
verse  refers  back  to  it,  laying  the  emphasis  on  '  one 
another.'  The  apostle  here  makes  the  accountability 
of  each  person  to  God  a  reason  for  the  exercise  of  for- 
bearance and  charity  in  judgment,  and  he  is  not  think- 
ing specifically  of  the  formal  act  of  confession  ;  and  it 
would  make  no  difference  if  we  should  render  the  He- 
brew word  '  swear  '  instead  of  '  confess.'  " 

3.  The  third  assertion  of  Toy  is  little  better  founded 
than  the  first  and  second  ;  for  it  is  by  no  means  certain 
that  the  apostle  finds  in  Isaiah  "  a  prediction  of  the  last 
judgment."  It  is  held  by  many  scholars  that  he  an- 
nounces a  proposition  and  sustains  it  by  two  arguments. 
The  proposition  which  he  announces  is  that  we  ought 
not  to  set  ourselves  up  as  judges  of  our  brethren  by 
indulging  in  harsh  criticisms  of  them.  The  first  argu- 
ment in  support  of  this  proposition  is  that  "  we  shall 
all  stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of  God,"  and  that 
therefore  he  is  the  rightful  judge  of  all.  The  second 
is  that  each  person  is  responsible  to  God,  and  not  to 
his  fellows,  since  God  says  that  to  him  "  every  knee 
shall  bow."  Each  of  these  arguments  is  introduced 
by  the  word  "for"  :  "  for  we  shall  all  stand"  ;  "for  it 
is  written."  This  introduction  of  each  of  a  series  of 
arguments  by  the  word  "for"  is  common  in  the  New 
Testament  ;  see  Matt.  6  :  32,  where  two  parallel  argu^ 
ments  are  introduced  in  the  same  manner  :  "  For  after 


360        QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

all  these  things  do  the  Gentiles  seek  ;  for  your  heavenly 
Father  knoweth  that  ye  have  need  of  all  these  things." 
But  let  us  grant  for  a  moment  that  the  apostle  cites 
the  words  to  prove  his  preceding  statement  that  "  we 
shall  all  stand  before  the  judgment  seat  of  God,"  and 
with  reference  to  the  last  judgment.  In  this  case  he 
does  not  wrest  them  from  their  original  purport,  but 
regards  the  prediction  of  the  universal  submission  of 
men  to  God  in  the  future  progress  of  the  human  race 
as  finding  its  ultimate  and  highest  fulfillment  at  the  last 
day,  of  which  all  previous  fulfillments  are  but  types 
and  shadows.  Toy  himself  frequently  recognizes  a 
principle  of  interpretation  much  like  this.  His  com- 
ment on  1  Cor.  1  5  :  54,  where  the  Apostle  Paul  quotes 
from  Isa.  25:8,  is  a  recognition  of  it.  The  phrase 
quoted  is,  "  Death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory."  On 
which  the  critic  says:  "There  is  no  question  here  of 
any  death  but  the  physical.  But  the  prophetic  vision 
of  perfect  life  is  fulfilled  in  the  clearer  teaching  of 
Christ  :  it  is  in  the  consummation  of  the  future  life, 
says  the  apostle,  that  this  word  of  Isaiah  shall  truly 
come  to  pass."  Let  us  alter  these  words  only  enough 
to  adapt  them  to  the  passage  now  immediately  before 
us,  and  observe  how  well  Toy  can  answer  himself : 
"There  is  no  question  here  of  any  submission  to  God 
but  that  which  shall  take  place  in  the  ordinary  course 
of  history.  But  the  prophetic  vision  of  perfect  and 
universal  submission  is  fulfilled  in  the  clearer  teaching 
of  Christ;  it  is  at  the  last  judgment,  says  the  apostle, 
that  this  word  of   Isaiah  shall  truly  come  to  pass." 

XI.    In   2    Cor.  8,  the   writer   exhorts   his   leaders   to 
complete  their  work  of  raising  money  for  the  rebel   oi 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  361 

the  poor  Christians  of  Jerusalem.  He  does  this,  he 
says,  not  that  the  Corinthians  may  be  burdened  and 
the  Jewish  Christians  relieved,  but  that  an  equality  of 
goods  may  be  effected.  He  makes  a  graceful  allusion 
to  the  history  of  the  manna,  well  known  to  all  readers 
of  the  Old  Testament ;  as  God  ordained  of  old  that 
"  he  who  gathered  much  had  nothing  over,  and  he  who 
gathered  little  had  no  lack,"  so  now  in  a  time  of  spe- 
cial distress,  the  apostle  says,  it  is  the  will  of  God  that 
those  who  have  abundance  shall  share  their  superfluity 
with  those  who  have  little,  "  that  there  may  be  equal- 
ity." This  appeal  to  the  Old  Testament  is  for  illustra- 
tion alone. 

Is  there  anything  wrong  in  this  use  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament record  ?  Is  it  not  such  as  is  constantly  found 
in  all  literatures  ?  It  appears  that  even  here,  however, 
the  objector  interposes  his  criticism.  Its  character  may 
be  gathered  from  these  words  of  Toy  :  "  The  apostle 
bases  an  exhortation  to  liberality  on  the  equality  of  the 
distribution  of  the  manna  ;  so,  he  says,  it  should  be 
with  brethren,  those  that  have  more  supplying  the  lack 
of  those  who  have  less.  Strictly  interpreted,  the  com- 
parison does  not  hold  ;  there  God  is  the  author  of  the 
equality  ;  here,  of  inequality."  No  extended  reply  to 
this  is  necessary.  The  reader  will  Yeadily  go  back  to 
the  thought  of  the  apostle  himself,  that  as  of  old,  in 
gathering  the  manna,  man  made  a  temporary  inequality, 
some  securing  much,  and  some  little,  so  it  is  now  in 
gathering  riches  ;  and  that,  as  of  old  God  established 
equality,  so  now,  in  a  time  of  special  distress,  he  rec- 
ommends it,  and  seeks  to  establish  it  through  the 
sympathy  and  voluntary  charity  of  his  people. 


362       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

XII.  Kuenen  and  Toy  object  to  Heb.  3  :  7-4  :  11 
for  its  use  of  Ps.  95  :  7-1 1  :  "  Wherefore,  even  as  the 
Holy  Ghost  saith, 

To-day,  if  ye  shall  hear  his  voice, 

Harden  not  your  hearts,  as  in  the  provocation, 

Like  as  in  the  day  of  the  temptation  in  the  wilderness, 

Wherewith  your  fathers  tempted  me  by  proving  me, 

And  saw  my  works  forty  years. 

Wherefore  I  was  displeased  with  this  generation, 

And  said,  They  do  always  err  in  their  heart  : 

But  they  did  not  know  my  ways; 

As  I  sware  in  my  wrath, 

They  shall  not  enter  into  my  rest." 

Then  follows  the  well-known  argument,  to  guard  the 
readers  of  the  epistle  from  the  impression  that  the 
psalm  could  have  no  reference  to  them,  and  to  warn 
them  against  "  falling  after  the  same  example  of  unbe- 
lief." The  criticisms  of  Kuenen  may  be  summed  up 
in  a  few  brief  sentences  : 

1.  The  author  of  Hebrews  refers  the  psalm  to 
David  (Heb.  4  :  7),  but  "  it  is  beyond  all  doubt  post- 
exilic."  But  the  writer  of  Hebrews  probably  does  not 
intend  to  attribute  the  psalm  to  David.  His  words 
are  :  "  Saying  in  David  "  ;  but  this  is  merely  a  mode  of 
designating  the  whole  book  of  Psalms,  to  which  David 
•  contributed  largely.  So  Toy,  Perowne,  Jennings.  I  .<  ,u  e, 
Ebrard,  Beza,  Dindorf,  Schulz,  Bohme,  Bleek,  Ellicott, 
Alford,  and  many  others.  We  call  the  Psalms  -  the 
Psalms  of  David,"  without  meaning  to  attribute  every 
psalm  to  him.  We  have  a  book  which  we  call  "  Shakes- 
peare," without  attributing  all  its  contents  to  the  great 
dramatist  ;  nay,  with   the  very  decided   conviction  that 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  363 

certain  portions  of  it  could  not  have   come  from  his 
pen. 

2.  "The  persons  whom  the  poet  addresses  are  his 
contemporaries  ;  but  according  to  the  writer  to  the  He- 
brews, the  psalm  was  written  for  the  Christians  of  his 
own  time."  This  is  quite  true.  In  the  Scriptures  God 
is  teaching  the  world,  and  not  merely  a  single  people  ; 
the  ages,  and  not  merely  one  age.  He  is  immutable  ; 
he  "  is  no  respecter  of  persons  ";  and  hence  the  warn- 
ings and  promises  addressed  to  Israel  by  Moses  and 
by  the  psalmist  "  were  written  for  our  admonition,  upon 
whom  the  ends  of  the  ages  are  come." 

3.  "  The  rest  or  resting-place  which  the  psalmist 
mentions  can  be  none  other  than  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
and  the  oath  sworn  by  God  had  exclusive  reference  to 
that  land.  But  the  writer  of  the  epistle  understands 
something  else  by  the  '  rest.'  In  the  psalm  God  calls 
it  '  my  rest,'  and  hence  the  writer  of  the  epistle  seeks 
to  connect  it  with  the  rest  into  which  the  Creator  en- 
tered after  finishing  his  works"  (Gen.  2  :  1-3).  This 
is  the  chief  objection,  and  it  merits  our  chief  attention. 

The  theme  of  the  whole  passage  is  the  peril  of  apos- 
tasy and  the  reward  of  steadfastness  :  "  Whose  house 
are  we,  if  we  hold  fast  our  boldness  and  the  glorying 
of  our  hope  firm  unto  the  end."  The  movement  of 
the  argument  is  stated  thus  by  Dr.  Timothy  Dwight  : l 

In  the  development  of  the  proof  given  in  these  verses  there 
are  apparently  four  steps.  1 .  The  rest  of  God  was  established 
by  him  at  the  end  of  the  creation  of  the  world.  2.  This  rest  of 
God  was  not  entered  by  the  Israelites  of  Moses'  time  ;  it  re- 
mained, therefore,  open  for  others.      3.    It  was  not  entered,  in 

1  In  the  American  edition  of  Meyer. 


364       QUOTATIONS   OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

the  full  sense,  in  the  time  of  Joshua  ;  it  was  reserved  for  men 
who  should  follow  afterward.  4.  It  was  not  entered  even  in 
David's  time,  as  indicated  by  the  very  exhortation  of  this  psalm, 
which  was  still  read  in  the  days  present  to  the  writer  and  his 
readers.  The  arrangement  of  the  steps  is  not  in  the  order  of 
direct  succession,  but  according  to  the  incidental  suggestions  of 
each  sentence  as  introducing  the  next. 

The  danger  of  apostasy  is  shown  by  that  part  of  the 
psalm  which  recites  the  rebellion  of  the  chosen  people 
and  their  death  in  the  wilderness.  With  this  we  come 
to  the  end  of  the  third  chapter,  and  find  no  difficulty. 
The  fourth  chapter  opens  with  the  danger  of  apostasy, 
but  passes  rapidly  to  the  reward  of  steadfastness.  God 
swore,  saying,  "  Rebellious  Israel  shall  not  enter  into 
my  rest."  The  oath  is  recorded  in  Num.  14  :  28-30. 
He  meant  by  his  "rest"  the  land  of  Canaan;  but  did 
he  mean  nothing  more?  Did  he  not  mean  also  all  the 
earthly  and  heavenly  blessings  of  which  that  land  was  a 
symbol,  the  rest  of  faith  here,  and  the  rest  of  glorious 
sight  hereafter  ?  The  whole  church  in  her  prayers,  her 
hymns,  her  sermons,  has  always  looked  upon  Canaan  as 
an  image  of  higher  and  better  things  ;  and  this  is  not 
the  result  of  mere  accident  or  fancy.  It  was  the 
thought  of  God  before  it  became  the  thought  of  his 
people ;  and  he  engraved  it  upon  his  word  that  he 
might  the  better  engrave  it  upon  their  minds. 

Hut  further,  the  psalmist  implies  that  there  was  the 
same  rest  of  God  in  his  day  into  which  the  obedient 
should  enter.  What  was  that  rest?  Canaan  only? 
\<>  one  lias  been  hardy  enough  to  say  so,  for  the  peo- 
ple were  there  already.  Toy  seeks  to  escape  the  per- 
plexity by  denying  that  the  psalmist  implies  the  exist- 


ILLOGICAL  REASONING  365 

ence  of  the  rest  of  God  in  his  own  clay.  He  says : 
"The  author,"  of  Hebrews,  "assumes  that  the  last 
verse  of  the  psalm  contains  a  promise,  as  if  it  were 
thus  to  be  construed  :  '  O  Israel,  your  fathers  failed  to 
enter  into  my  rest  because  of  their  disobedience,  but 
do  you  take  warning  to-day  by  them,  so  that  you  may 
not  fail  to  gain  the  promised  rest.'  But  the  psalm 
merely  recites  a  fact  of  the  past."  On  the  contrary, 
the  closing  part  of  the  psalm  is  meaningless,  unless  it 
implies  that  the  peril  of  destruction  still  exists  for  apos- 
tates, as  also  the  blessing  of  divine  rest  for  the  faithful. 
The  psalm  is  one  of  the  so-called  liturgical  psalms  ; 
that  is,  it  was  read  constantly  in  the  synagogue  service. 
But  why  was  this,  unless  for  its  implied  warning  and 
promise  ?  It  is  often  read  and  sung  in  our  churches, 
but  always  with  the  same  thought  and  for  the  same  ad- 
monition and  encouragement.  Let  it  be  its  own  wit- 
ness :  few  can  read  or  hear  it  without  finding  in  its  clos- 
ing words  an  awful  warning  and  a  glorious  hope  for 
themselves. 

Thus  far  the  author  of  Hebrews  is  certainly  right  in 
his  interpretation.  But  he  proceeds  further.  The 
"  rest  "  spoken  of  in  the  psalm  was  the  land  of  Canaan ; 
but  it  was  also  more,  for  it  could  still  be  offered  to  Is- 
rael after  the  days  of  Joshua  and  the  conquest.  What 
was  it  then  ?  The  psalmist  represents  God  as  calling 
it  "my  rest."  In  the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment God  had  spoken  to  the  people  of  a  rest,  as  in 
Deut.  12:9;  but  he  had  not  called  it  "  my  rest."  The 
new  form  of  words  must  probably  denote  some  new 
thought.  And,  as  revelation  is  a  progressive  unfolding 
of  truth,  it  would  be  a  higher  and  fuller  thought.     It 


366       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

was  the  rest  of  God  on  which  he  entered  after  the  work 
of  creation,  and  to  which  he  invited  his  people  when 
he  "  blessed  the  seventh  day  and  hallowed  it,"  the  spir- 
itual refreshment  of  men  by  faith  in  their  Father,  who 
provides  for  all  their  toils  a  balm  of  holy  communion 
here  and  a  reward  of  celestial  bliss  hereafter.  Moulton1 
has  well  said  : 

Though  the  mention  of  the  oath  of  God  is  derived  from  Num. 
14  :  28-30,  the  language  of  the  historian  is  significantly  changed  ; 
for  "  ye  shall  not  come  into  the  land,"  we  read,  "  they  shall  not 
enter  into  my  rest."  True,  their  land  could  be  spoken  of  as 
their  "rest  and  inheritance"  (Deut.  12  :  9),  but  the  language 
which  the  psalmist  chooses  is  at  all  events  susceptible  of  a  much 
higher  and  wider  meaning,  and  may  have  been  used  in  this  ex- 
tended sense  long  before  the  psalmist's  age.  That  verse  eight 
when  placed  beside  verse  eleven  shows  the  higher  meaning  to 
have  been  present  in  the  psalmist's  thought,  and  implies  that 
the  offer  of  admission  to  the  rest  of  God  was  still  made,  it  seems 
unreasonable  to  doubt.  As  the  people  learned  through  ages  of 
experience  and  training  to  discern  the  deeper  and  more  spiritual 
meaning  that  lay  in  the  promises  of  the  King  and  Son  of  David, 
so  was  it  with  other  promises  which  at  first  might  seem  to  have 
only  a  temporal  significance.  If  these  considerations  are  well 
founded,  it  follows  that  we  have  no  right  to  look  on  the  argu- 
ment of  this  section  as  an  "  accommodation  "  or  a  mere  applica- 
tion of  Scripture  :  the  Christian  preacher  does  but  fill  up  the  out- 
line which  the  prophet  had  drawn. 

The  development  of  this  higher  view  in  Israel  is 
sketched  thus  by  Bleek  : 2 

More  and  more,  as  time  passed,  the  consciousness  pre- 
vailed, especially  with  the  more  clear-sighted  and  devout  Israel- 
ites, that  even  after  the  possession  of  the  land,  the  people,  owing 

1  In  Ellicott's  "  New  Testament  Commentary,"  Vol,  11 1.,  p.  297. 
J  "  Der  Brief  an  die  Hebrfter,"  Vol.  II.,  p.  44&- 


ILLOGICAL   REASONING  367 

to  their  perversity,  never  became  partakers  of  the  rest  and  hap- 
piness in  such  fullness  as  the  promises  from  the  beginning  held 
out  to  them.  With  this  became  connected  the  conviction  that 
even  the  divine  promise  of  the  "  inheritance  "  had  not  yet  found 
its  complete  fulfillment,  so  far  as  its  essential  elements  are  con- 
cerned, and  stood  yet  in  the  future.  Hence  the  expression  "to 
inherit  the  land"  used  in  the  original  promise,  came  to  be  re- 
garded, even  after  their  longing  altogether  ceased  to  be  distinctly 
connected  with  the  possession  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  as  a  desig- 
nation of  the  whole  sum  of  the  future  great  salvation  for  which 
the  offspring  of  Abraham  waited,  in  accordance  with  the  promise 
made  to  their  forefathers. 

Kurtz1  also  finds  in  the  psalm  the  fuller  meaning 
which  the  New  Testament  ascribes  to  it. 

In  order  that  there  may  be  no  lack  of  clearness  in 
this  discussion,  I  now  produce  at  length,  though  at 
some  risk  of  repetition,  the  objections  which  Toy  brings 
forward  to  the  use  of  the  passage  made  by  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  : 

The  psalm  passage  (which  is  a  simple  exhortation  to  the  Jew- 
ish people  not  to  harden  their  hearts  as  their  ancestors  did)  is 
cited  in  the  epistle  for  a  double  purpose  ;  first,  as  a  warning  to 
Christians  against  unbelief  and  hardening  of  heart  (3  :  12-19)  ; 
and  then,  to  show  (4  :  1-1 1)  that  the  rest  spoken  of  in  the  psalm 
is  not  the  rest  of  Canaan,  but  the  sabbatism  or  sabbath-rest, 
the  spiritual  and  physical  repose  and  peace  which  shall  be  the 
lot  of  the  followers  of  Christ  when  he  shall  come,  at  the  end  of 
the  present  age,  to  establish  his  kingdom  forever  (compare  10  : 
36-39)-  This  conclusion  is  drawn  from  the  fact  that  the  state- 
ment concerning  "  rest  "  in  the  psalm  (in  "  David  "4:7,  where 
"David"  seems  to  be  merely  a  designation  of  the  book  of 
Psalms)  was  made  after  God  instituted  the  weekly  sabbath-rest 
(see  next  quotation),  and  also  after  Joshua  had  settled  the  peo- 
ple in  Canaan  (4  :  8),  so  that  the  "rest"  here  promised  could 

1  "  Der  Brief  an  die  Hebraer,"  p.  138. 


368       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

only  be  the  Messianic  rest.  The  author  assumes  that  the  last 
verse  contains  a  promise,  as  if  it  were  thus  to  be  construed  : 
"  O  Israel,  your  fathers  failed  to  enter  into  my  rest  because  of 
their  disobedience,  but  do  you  take  warning  to-day  by  them,  so 
that  you  may  not  fail  to  gain  the  promised  rest."  But  the  psalm 
merely  cites  a  fact  of  the  past,  and  affirms  the  failure  to  enter 
Canaan  only  of  that  one  unbelieving  generation  (in  accordance 
with  Deut.  1  :  34,  35,  on  which  verses  10,  11  of  the  psalm  are 
based),  while  the  new  generation,  together  with  Caleb  and  Joshua, 
did  enter  on  the  enjoyment  of  the  land  and  the  promise  (Deut. 
1  :  36-39).  Our  author  leaves  the  historical  relations  entirely 
out  of  view,  and  uses  the  words  for  his  exhortation  and  argu- 
ment without  regard  to  their  proper  meaning.  His  exhortation 
is  religiously  elevated  and  useful,  but  his  exegesis  is  faulty. 

Briefly,  then,  the  objections  of  Toy  are  two  : 

1.  The  author  of  the  epistle  regards  the  quotation 
as  implying  that  there  was  in  the  psalmist's  day,  long 
after  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  and  the  conquest 
of  Canaan,  a  rest  into  which  the  people  of  God  might 
enter  or  might  fail  to  enter ;  whereas  the  quotation 
implies  no  such  thing,  but  refers  solely  to  the  rest 
achieved  by  Joshua  ages  before  the  psalm  was  written. 

2.  The  author  of  the  epistle  supposes  that  the  rest, 
whose  existence  he  holds  to  be  thus  implied  in  the 
psalm,  is  the  rest  which  the  people  of  God  shall  enter 
at  the  second  coming  of  Christ  in  glory. 

I  shall  now  show  that  the  exegesis  of  the  author  of 
the  epistle,  instead  of  being  faulty,  is  that  which  the 
passages  involved  render  necessary. 

I.  To  regard  the  language  of  the  psalmist  concern- 
ing the  "rest"  promised  by  Cod  as  merely  historical 
is  to  forget  that  it  was  written  for  a  moral  purpose, 
that  it  is  an  incentive  to  holy  living,  that  it  is  an  appeal 


ILLOGICAL  REASONING  369 

to  hope  as  well  as  to  fear.  The  psalm  is  not  history; 
it  is  an  application  of  history  to  the  religious  life  as  a 
motive.  No  Hebrew  of  old  would  doubt  this  when  he 
heard  it  read ;  and  no  Christian  to-day  doubts  it. 
Holding  this  view  of  the  psalm  as  correct,  the  reader 
of  it  will  instinctively  find  in  the  closing  words  the 
teaching  that,  as  the  Israelites  of  old  missed  the  rest 
of  God,  so  the  people  of  every  age  may  miss  it,  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  those  who  avoid  the  sin  of  ancient 
Israel  may  yet  enter  into  it.  The  psalm  was  often  read 
in  the  synagogues  of  the  Jews,  and  must  always  have 
carried  this  thought  to  the  hearers,  as  it  does  to-day 
when  it  is  read  or  sung  in  our  churches.  If  it  were  a 
mere  recitation  of  history,  without  a  purpose  of  en- 
couragement, as  well  as  of  admonition,  it  would  not 
have  found  so  large  a  place  in  the  public  worship  either 
of  Jews  or  Christians.  That  the  writer  of  the  epistle 
is  correct  in  his  view  of  the  psalm  is  held  by  all  con- 
servative interpreters. 

2.  The  statement  that  the  writer  of  the  epistle  sup- 
posed the  psalmist  to  refer  to  the  rest  of  the  saints  to 
be  established  by  Christ  at  his  second  coming,  has  no 
support  whatever.  It  is  the  mere  assertion  of  certain 
expositors,  whom  Toy  follows.  The  appeal  to  Heb.  10 : 
36-39  proves  nothing  as  to  the  meaning  of  this  pas- 
sage, and  its  production  in  support  of  the  proposed  in- 
terpretation only  shows  in  what  desperate  straits  the 
interpretation  is.  Seven  chapters  separate  the  passage 
from  the  verses  cited  to  illustrate  it,  and  the  subjects 
of  discussion  are  changed  many  times  in  the  interval. 
Moreover,  the  writer  of  the  epistle  uses  the  present 
tense  when  he  speaks  of  this  rest :  "  We  which  have 


370      QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

believed  do  enter  into  that  rest."  Some  critics,  as 
Stuart  says,  have  been  so  troubled  with  the  present 
tense  of  "do  enter"  that  they  have  changed  it  to  the 
future  without  warrant.  Still  further,  believers  in 
Christ  are  regarded  by  the  writer  as  having  already 
entered  into  the  rest,  and  to  be  in  danger  of  "  seeming 
to  have  come  short  of  it."  It  is  evident  from  these 
considerations  that  the  rest  is  a  universal  spiritual  ex- 
perience of  those  who  believe,  that  it  is  past,  present, 
and  future ;  past,  in  the  experience  of  all  in  every  age 
who  have  believed  ;  present,  in  the  experience  of 
all  who  now  believe,  whether  they  are  on  earth  or  in 
heaven  ;  and  future,  as  all  the  blessed  spiritual  expe- 
riences of  Christians  in  this  life  are  foregleams  of  "the 
glory  to  be  revealed."  This  view  is  sustained  by  the 
great  majority  of  expositors. 

XIII.  The  quotation  from  Jer.  31  131-34  in  Heb. 
8  :  8-13  and  10  :  1  5-18,  leads  Toy  to  write  : 

"The  epistle  assumes  the  identity  of  Jeremiah's  'new  cove- 
nant' with  Christianity,  and  rightly  in  so  far  as  the  inward  obe- 
dience therein  prescribed  is  concerned.  But,  at  the  same  time, 
it  is  true  that  the  prophet  held  this  higher  covenant  to  be  made 
with  Israel  as  a  nation,  and  that  he  meant  by  it  not  a  literal 
abrogation  of  the  existing  customs  of  sacrifice,  but  only  the  in- 
fusion of  a  better  spirit  into  the  national  life  with  all  its  outward 
forms."  "The  epistle  regards  the  passage  as  announcing  the 
abrogation  of  the  Levitical  system  of  many  sacrifices  in  favor  of 
the  one  sacrifice  which  Christ  makes  once  for  all." 

So  much  of  this  comment  as  relates  to  the  abroga- 
tion of  Jewish  sacrifices  is  beside  the  mark,  for  the 
New  Testament  writer  docs  not  quote  the  passage  as 
asserting   this.      In   the  first  quotation  of  the  passage 


ILLOGICAL  REASONING  37 1 

he  shows  by  it  simply  that  God  contemplated  the  abro- 
gation of  the  Sinaitic  covenant  and  the  institution  of 
a  better  one,  whose  laws  should  be  written  on  the  mind 
and  heart,  and  says  nothing  about  the  Mosaic  sacri- 
fices. The  second  quotation  is  adduced  as  a  proof,  but 
not  an  assertion,  that  the  Mosaic  sacrifices,  according 
to  the  purposes  of  God,  were  to  be  done  away.  The 
passage  asserts  that  under  the  new  covenant  the  law 
of  God  should  be  written  on  the  minds  and  hearts  of 
men,  and  that  God  should  "remember  their  sins  and 
their  iniquities  no  more."  Having  cited  this  statement, 
the  writer  proceeds  to  infer  from  it  the  abrogation  of 
sacrifices  :  "  Now  where  remission  of  these  is,  there  is 
no  more  offering  for  sin."  The  inference  is  logical. 
Since  men  are  to  be  fully  assured  of  the  free  pardon 
of  all  their  sins,  there  will  be  no  need  for  them  to 
bring  daily  sacrifices  for  sin,  testifying  thus  their  fear 
that  it  is  not  pardoned  :  since  there  is  to  be  no  more 
occasion  for  sacrifices,  there  are  to  be  no  more  sacri- 
fices. But  the  writer  of  the  epistle  does  not  represent 
the  prophet  as  drawing  this  inference ;  it  is  his  own  ; 
and  he  does  not  write  a  word  that  can  justify  the  critic 
in  attributing  to  him  a  wrong  view  of  the  passage 
which  he  quotes.  In  logic  there  is  no  distinction  more 
important  than  that  of  a  statement  and  the  inferences 
which  may  be  drawn  from  it,  or  which  necessarily  fol- 
low it.  The  writer  of  the  epistle  observes  this  distinc- 
tion with  scrupulous  care,  attributing  to  the  prophet 
simply  what  he  says,  and  then  showing  the  necessary' 
bearing  of  the  prophetic  testimony  upon  the  Christian 
argument. 


XI 

RABBINIC    INTERPRETATION 

THE  opinion  is  widely  diffused  that  Christ  and  the 
apostles  quoted  and  interpreted  the  Old  Testa- 
ment exactly  as  did  the  rabbis  of  their  time.  Various 
scholars  have  labored  to  establish  this  theory  by  ex- 
hibiting the  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  and  of 
the  rabbis  in  parallels.  The  most  thorough  of  these 
writers  is  Dopke,  who  is  often  referred  to  as  having 
left  nothing  to  be  said  on  either  side  of  the  subject. 
We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  Dopke  was  moved 
by  unbelief.  On  the  contrary,  he  regarded  his  work 
as  a  product  of  faith.  For  Christ  and  the  apostles  to 
use  the  Jewish  Scriptures  precisely  as  the  rabbis  did, 
was  not  only  blameless,  but  praiseworthy,  and  indeed 
necessary.  It  was  not  their  business  to  set  forth  any 
theory  of  inspiration  or  any  rules  of  interpretation. 
They  found  certain  writings  among  their  people ;  these 
were  regarded  by  all  as  the  voice  of  God  ;  and,  being 
interpreted  in  certain  ways,  seemed  to  contain  predic- 
tions of  a  Messiah  who  should  reign  in  a  temporal 
glory  like  that  of  David  or  Solomon.  Christ  and  the 
apostles,  therefore,  were  obliged  to  accept  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  to  show  that  the  passages  cited  as  pre- 
dictions of  a  political  Messiah  really  portrayed  such  a 
Messiah  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  They  were  obliged 
also  to  conform  to  the  methods  of  interpretation  com- 
372 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  373 

monly  received  ;  for  had  they  proposed  new  and  cor- 
rect canons  of  exegesis  their  gospel  would  have  been 
rejected  at  once.  Such  is  the  theory  of  Dopke,  and, 
as  the  reader  will  readily  infer,  it  enables  him  to  ex- 
hibit equally  the  wisdom  and  the  folly  of  rabbinic  in- 
terpretation, to  search  out  what  he  regards  as  parallel 
with  it  in  the  New  Testament,  and  to  present  this  ma- 
terial with  a  certain  innocent  gratification,  even  when 
it  is  made  to  appear  illogical,  insincere,  or  even  idiotic. 
That  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  quoted  the 
Old  in  a  strictly  rabbinic  manner  is  demonstrated,  ac- 
cording to  Dopke,  by  nine  or  ten  different  kinds  of 
proof.  I  shall  now  review  these  so-called  proofs,  and 
show  that  I  have  already  answered  them,  in  so  far  as 
they  are  worthy  of  serious  attention,  in  the  preceding 
chapters  of  this  book.  They  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Verbal  alterations  of  the  passage  quoted,  in  order 
to  fit  it  to  its  new  connection,  or  for  some  other  rhe- 
torical purpose.  Dopke  adduces  six  instances  of  this 
kind  from  the  rabbis.  I  have  adduced  thirteen  from 
the  Greek  classics  alone,  and  have  limited  the  number 
simply  for  want  of  space. 

2.  Fragmentary  quotations,  where  the  whole  pas- 
sage is  intended.  Dopke  has  produced  eleven  of  these 
from  rabbinic  literature.  I  have  produced  seventeen 
from  the  Greek  and  Latin  classics,  with  evidences  of  a 
much  larger  number  for  which  I  have  no  room,  and 
have  shown  that  such  quotations  are  common  to  all 
literatures.  I  have  shown  also  that  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment they  are  always  based  upon  a  context  appropriate 
to  the  subject  under  discussion. 

2g 


374  '     QUOTATIONS   OF   THE    NEW   TESTAMENT 

3.  Quotation  of  a  passage  in  full  when  only  a  part 
of  it  is  necessary.  But  one  rabbinic  example  of  this 
kind  is  given.  I  have  found  it  difficult  to  suppose  that 
Dopke  is  serious  here  ;  it  has  seemed  to  me  that  his 
argument  at  this  point  can  be  accounted  for  best  on 
the  supposition  that  he  has  wished  to  provide  for  the 
diversion  of  his  readers.  Every  author  who  quotes 
much,  often  takes  from  others  more  than  is  required  for 
his  purpose,  whether  his  desire  is  to  prove  a  proposi- 
tion or  only  to  ornament  his  pages.  The  rabbis  are  so 
little  peculiar  in  this  respect  that  the  reader  need  only 
turn  a  leaf  or  two  of  Plato  or  of  Cicero,  of  Burke  or  of 
Addison,  to  come  upon  numerous  instances  of  the 
same  kind. 

4.  Composite  quotations.  Dopke  has  collected  twenty- 
four  examples  of  these  from  the  rabbis.  I  have  pre- 
sented eleven  from  the  Greek  classics  alone,  and  have 
shown  that  they  are  abundant  in  other  literatures. 

5.  Quotations  of  the  sense  of  Scripture  without  the 
language.  Dopke  presents  eleven  rabbinic  examples 
of  these.  I  have  shown  by  fourteen  examples  that  the 
practice  was  common  in  antiquity,  and  not  rabbinic  in 
any  special  sense. 

6.  Quotations  from  secular  authors,  or  from  the 
maxims  of  ordinary  life,  not  attributed  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, but  to  their  proper  secular  sources.  Again 
one  is  tempted  to  think  that  Dopke  has  thrown  in 
this  section  for  the  amusement  of  his  readers.  The 
rabbis  quote  the  sayings  of  ordinary  people  ;  therefore 
when  the  Apostle  Paul  quotes  from  the  Greek  poets, 
ho  is  quoting  as  a  rabbi!  Let  us  extend  the  reason- 
ing a   stop  farther,  and   prove  that  when    Plato  quotes 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  375 

from  Homer,  or  Webster  from  Milton,  he  quotes  as  a 
rabbi. 

7.  Exegetical  changes  of  the  words  quoted.  Dopke 
has  twelve  instances  of  these  from  the  rabbis.  Most 
of  them  are  of  a  sort  that  is  not  found  at  all  in  the 
New  Testament.  I  have  produced  a  larger  number  of 
instances  from  ordinary  English  literature,  of  the  same 
sort  with  those  which  occur  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  have  shown  that  when  Christ  and  the  apostles 
alter  any  text  in  this  way  they  do  but  bring  out  its  real 
meaning,  instead  of  putting  a  new  meaning  into  it. 

8.  Allegory.  Dopke  begins  the  third  section  of  his 
discussion  of  this  subject  as  follows  :  "  That  the  alle- 
gorical interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
fully  accepted  by  the  writers  of  the  New  is  acknowl- 
edged by  all,  and  hence  needs  no  special  proof."  If 
any  one  should  doubt  the  meaning  of  this  sweeping 
declaration,  he  need  only  read  the  context  in  which  it 
occurs.  We  have  there  a  sketch  of  the  allegorical  system 
of  biblical  interpretation  as  adopted  by  such  men  as 
Philo  and  Origen  and  by  the  Jewish  rabbis  in  general. 
I  have  shown  in  my  chapter  on  the  allegories  of  the 
New  Testament  that  the  apostles  and  evangelists  as- 
sume the  strictly  historical  character  of  those  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  they  use  for  the  construc- 
tion of  allegory,  that  their  method  of  interpreting  it  is 
at  a  world-wide  distance  from  the  vagaries  of  Philo  and 
Origen  and  the  Jewish  rabbis,  and  that  they  construct 
their  allegories  exactly  as  the  Greek  and  Roman  and 
English  and  German  authors  construct  theirs. 

9.  Dopke  means  by  the  word  "  allegory "  not  only 
that   which   is   commonly  understood  when  it  is   em- 


376       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

ployed,  but  also  all  double  reference  of  all  kinds.  His 
argument  concerning  double  reference  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows  :  The  allegorical  interpreters  of  the 
Bible,  including  the  rabbis,  find  the  element  of  double  ]/ 
reference,  and  even  of  multiple  reference,  in  the  Old 
Testament  ;  Christ  and  his  apostles  find  the  element 
of  double  reference  in  the  Old  Testament ;  hence 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  in  interpreting  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, borrow  their  system  of  interpretation  from  the 
rabbis. 

Such  is  the  argument.  It  is  defective,  first,  because 
it  does  not  present  a  fair  statement  of  the  premises  ; 
and  secondly,  because,  even  if  its  statement  of  the 
premises  is  accepted  as  fair,  the  conclusion  will  not  fol- 
low. The  argument,  stated  fairly,  is  this  :  The  rabbis 
find  a  double  reference  in  every  part  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  a  multiple  reference  in  many  parts,  and 
search  for  it  in  puerile  and  silly  extremes.  Christ  and 
the  apostles  recognize  a  double  reference  only  in  par- 
ticular places,  and  especially  in  Messianic  passages ; 
and  they  search  for  it  in  a  manner  worthy  of  its  intrin- 
sic beauty,  dignity,  and  utility ;  therefore  Christ  and 
the  apostles  borrow  their  system  of  interpretation  from 
the  rabbis.  The  real  premises  are  as  I  have  here 
stated  them,  and  the  reader  perceives  at  once  how  little 
support  they  give  to  the  conclusion. 

That  there  is  all  this  wide  difference  between  the 
rabbis  and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  in  their 
treatment  of  the  element  of  double  reference  in  the 
Scriptures,  is  shown  by  Dopke  himself  better  than  by 
any  other  person.  It  is  Dopke  who  speaks  as  follows  : 
"The  Jewish  writers,  in  their  employment  of  a  passage 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  377 

of  Scripture,  never  regard  its  connection.  I  say  never, 
lest  some  one  should  suppose  that  their  neglect  is 
limited  to  oratorical  or  allegorical  uses." 

It  is  Dopke  who  analyzes  their  methods  of  finding 
the  secondary  reference  of  Scripture,  and  distinguishes 
eight  of  them,  all  arbitrary,  violent,  irreverent,  and  all 
illustrated  by  examples  uniformly  silly,  driveling,  and 
idiotic,  in  an  incredible  degree. 

It  is  Dopke  who  closes  his  discussion  of  double  ref- 
erence with  the  statement  that  "the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  though  many  defects  of  the  Jewish 
theology  still  cleave  to  them,  make  on  the  whole  a  far 
wiser  use  of  the  Old  Testament  than  the  rabbis,"  and 
that  "every  unprejudiced  scholar  must  feel  himself 
constrained  to  admit  this." 

But  even  were  the  rabbis  correct  in  their  use  of 
double  reference,  it  would  not  follow  that  the  apostles 
had  borrowed  from  them.  I  have  shown  in  another  chap- 
ter that  double  reference  abounds  in  all  literatures,  an- 
cient and  modern.  All  competent  critics  recognize  it. 
The  German  poets  and  essayists  are  especially  fond  of 
it  ;  and  had  Dopke  read  the  literature  of  his  own  land 
with  a  little  attention,  he  would  have  discovered  it 
there,  and  would  not  have  pronounced  it  a  figment  of 
rabbinic  fancy.  The  apostles  did  not  learn  from  the 
rabbis  to  imagine  its  existence  in  the  Old  Testament ; 
they  discovered  it  there  for  themselves,  as  every  stu- 
dent of  every  literature  discovers  it  for  himself. 

I  have  now  stated  in  outline  the  whole  argument  of 
Dopke  and  his  followers,  who  assure  us  that  "  the  writ- 
ers of  the  New  Testament  quote  and  interpret  the 
Old  exactly  as  the  rabbis  do."     The  argument  in  brief 


378       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

is  this  :  "  The  rabbis  do  certain  things.  The  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  do  things  in  some  respects 
similar.  Therefore  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment are  disciples  of  the  rabbis  in  this  matter." 
But  the  conclusion  does  not  follow  from  the  premises ; 
for  we  have  still  to  ask  whether  the  rabbis  are  the 
only  persons  besides  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment who  do  the  things  in  question  ?  Or  are  they 
not  done  also  by  all  writers  of  their  time,  Jewi.>h, 
Greek,  and  Latin  ?  Indeed,  are  they  not  done  by  all 
writers  of  all  times,  because  natural  and  spontaneous 
to  the  literary  instinct  ? 

A  distinguished  man  relates  the  following  anecdote 
in  a  personal  letter  to  me.  A  certain  king  once  pro- 
pounded a  difficult  question  to  an  association  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  science  which  met  in  his  capital.  He 
stated  that  a  babe  had  been  born  with  one  side  of  its 
face  black,  and  asked  for  a  solution  of  the  mystery.  A 
committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  case,  and 
framed  a  satisfactory  theory.  When  the  report  was 
submitted  to  him,  the  king  thanked  the  committee  for 
their  labors,  and  said  that  he  was  encouraged  to  request 
them  to  investigate  one  mystery  more.  The  other  side 
of  the  babe's  face  also  was  black  :  would  they  give  him 
a  theory  to  explain  this  ? 

The  rabbis  do  certain  things;  and  the  apostles  do 
certain  similar  things.  We  ask  Dopkc  and  his  follow- 
ers to  explain  tin:  action  of  the  apostles,  and  they  an- 
swer that  these  men  were  disciples  and  imitators  of  the 
rabbis.  We  then  tell  the  same  men  that  all  writers  of 
the  apostolic  age,  and  of  earlier  generations,  do  many 
of  these  same  tilings  ;  ami   that  all  writers  of  all  ages 


V 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  379 

and  all  lands  do  many  others  of  these  same  things  ;  and 
we  ask  them  to  explain  the  action  of  the  apostles  in 
the  light  of  this  new  statement.  A  good  scientific 
hypothesis  will  consider  all  the  facts  of  a  given  case, 
and  not  merely  one-tenth  of  them. 

The  New  Testament  has  a  certain  kind  of  rabbinic 
coloring,  because  its  writers  were  Hebrews,  like  the 
rabbis  ;  because  they  had  been  brought  up  under  the 
instruction,  or  at  least  the  influence,  of  the  rabbis  ;  and 
because  again,  in  common  with  the  rabbis,  they  sur- 
charged their  books  with  expressions  borrowed  from 
the  Old  Testament.  But  the  resemblance  is  chiefly  in 
appearance  ;  when  the  reader  pierces  below  the  surface, 
he  finds  but  little  of  it  ;  and  it  vanishes  wholly  when 
he  searches  in  the  New  Testament  for  the  obscurities, 
the  superstitions,  the  cabalisms,  the  puerilities,  the  ab- 
surdities, the  insanities,  which  stare  at  him  from  every 
page  of  the  rabbinic  interpretations  of  the  sacred 
writings. 

I  do  not  stand  alone  in  speaking  thus  severely  of  the 
rabbis,  and  in  contrasting,  rather  than  comparing,  their 
writings  with  the  New  Testament,  but  am  sustained  by 
critics  from  all  the  chief  schools  of  interpretation. 
Thus  Ebrard  says,1  representing  the  orthodoxy  of  Ger- 
many : 

In  general,  it  is  a  very  superficial  and  shallow  view  that 
would  lead  us  all  at  once  to  consider  the  use  of  Old  Testament 
passages  in  the  New  Testament  as  parallel  with  the  exegetico- 
dogmatic  method  of  argumentation  pursued  by  the  rabbis.  The 
apostles  and  apostolic  men  have  indeed  exhibited  in  their  epis- 
tles such  a  freedom  from  the  spirit  of  Jewish  tradition,  such  an 

1 "  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,"  l  :  4-14. 


380       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

originality  and  youthful  vigor  of  new  life,  such  a  fineness  and 
depth  of  psychological  and  historical  intuition,  and  the  whole 
system  of  Christianity  in  its  freshness  and  originality  stands  in 
such  contrast  to  the  old,  insipid,  pre-messianic  Judaism,  and  ap- 
pears so  thoroughly  a  new  structure  from  the  foundation  resting 
on  the  depths  of  Old  Testament  revelation,  and  not  a  mere  en- 
largement of  the  Pharisaico- rabbinical  self-styled  Judaism,  that 
it  were  indeed  wonderful,  if  the  same  apostolic  men  had,  in 
their  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  passages,  held  them- 
selves dependent  on  the  Jewish  exegesis  and  hermeneutical 
method.  In  reality,  however,  the  apostolic  exegesis  of  the  Old 
Testament  stands  in  directest  opposition  to  the  Jewish-rabbinical, 
so  that  one  can  scarcely  imagine  a  more  complete  and  diamet- 
rical difference.  In  the  rabbinic  interpretation  it  is  always  sin- 
gle words,  studiously  separated  from  the  context,  from  which  in- 
ferences, of  course  arbitrary,  are  drawn.  The  rabbis  affirm,  for 
example,  that  when  a  man  lies  three  days  in  the  grave,  his  en- 
trails are  torn  from  his  body  and  cast  in  his  face  ;  because  it  is 
written  in  Mai.  2:3:  "I  will  also  cast  the  filth  of  your  festi- 
vals in  your  face."  Nay,  the  later  rabbinism,  as  a  direct  result 
of  this  arbitrary  procedure,  went  the  length  of  drawing  infer- 
ences even  from  single  letters.  They  taught,  for  example,  the 
transmigration  of  the  soul,  and  that  the  souls  of  men  ever  con- 
tinue to  live  in  men  ;  thus  the  life  of  Cain  passed  into  Jethro, 
his  spirit  into  Korah,  and  his  soul  into  the  Egyptians,  because 
two  words  are  found  at  Gen.  4  :  24  containing  the  first  letters  of 
the  words  Jethro,  Korah,  and  Egyptians.  The  genuine  Phari- 
saical spirit  which  forms  the  basis  of  all  this  is  that  the  letter  as 
such  is  what  is  most  significant.  The  New  Testament  writers, 
on  the  contrary,  as  we  have  seen  in  reference  to  Heb.  1  :  6-9, 
and  as  we  see  more  and  more  as  we  proceed  with  the  epistle, 
drew  all  their  arguments  from  the  spirit  of  the  passages  consid- 
ered in  their  connection.  Nothing  at  all  is  inferred  from  the 
mere  letters  of  the  passages  quoted. 

Rcuss  may  be  selected  as  an  example  of  the  more 
skeptical  school.      He  writes  : ' 

1  "  History  of  the  New  Testament,"  530. 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  381 

From  the  Christian  standpoint,  and  in  view  of  their  respective 
objects,  purposes,  and  methods  of  procedure,  the  superiority  of 
the  apostolic  hermeneutics  to  the  Jewish,  especially  the  Alexan- 
drian, cannot  be  disputed.  Nor,  as  soon  as  Christianity  and 
Judaism  are  recognized  as  different  stages  of  development  of  the 
same  revelation,  can  there  be  any  debate  as  to  the  justice  of  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  apostolic  hermeneutics,  though 
there  may  doubtless  be  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  limits  of 
its  application  and  the  degree  to  which  the  apostles  were  con- 
scious of  the  grounds  of  their  exposition. 

Even  Dopke  admits  that  "the  apostles  disdained 
many  of  the  ridiculous  arts  of  Jewish  hermeneutics," 
and  recognizes  "  with  praise  the  freedom  of  mind  with 
which  they  struck  off  that  fetter."  These  expressions 
of  Dopke,  and  others  of  the  same  tenor  which  I  have 
already  cited,  are  inconsistent  with  the  theory  of  inter- 
pretation which  he  holds  and  defends ;  they  seem  to  be 
wrung  from  a  reluctant  mind ;  and  they  are  therefore 
of  the  greater  force  as  testimony  against  the  rabbis 
and  in  favor  of  the  New  Testament. 

The  rabbis,  in  quoting  the  Old  Testament,  altered 
the  text  arbitrarily  and  freely,  if  it  suited  their  pur- 
pose, not  in  order  to  bring  out  some  meaning  couched 
in  it,  but  to  make  it  express  a  meaning  wholly  foreign 
to  it  ;  and  the  passages  thus  altered  are  used  for  proof 
as  voices  of  divine  authority.  Changes  of  the  former 
kind  are  made  in  the  quotations  of  all  literatures,  as 
we  have  seen  ;  they  are  paraphrases.  But  changes  of 
the  latter  kind  are  preferred  by  the  rabbis.  They  were 
conscious  of  no  wrong  in  this  thing,  but  carried  it  off 
bravely,  often  announcing  what  they  were  doing,  as  with 
the  phrase,  "Thou  shalt  not  read  thus,  but  thus  "  ;  or, 
"Take  away  from  the  Scripture ;  add  to  it ;  and  so  ex- 


382       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

plain  it  "  ;  or,  "The  text  is  changed."  !  Sometimes  the 
vowel-pointing  is  altered,  so  as  to  give  a  different  word  ; 
at  other  times  the  consonants  are  not  spared ;  at  other 
times  the  letters  are  preserved,  but  their  order  is 
changed  so  as  to  produce  such  words  as  the  commenta- 
tor desired ;  at  other  times  a  word  is  divided  so  as  to 
make  two,  with  meanings  wholly  foreign  to  the  origi- 
nal expression  ;  and  at  other  times,  finally,  the  order 
of  the  words  is  changed  so  as  to  make  a  new  sense. 
The  Jewish  belief  that  every  letter  and  every  syllable 
of  every  word  of  Scripture  is  freighted  with  a  divine 
significance  of  its  own,  and  that  the  Scriptures  mean 
all  that  can  be  gotten  out  of  them  by  any  process  what- 
ever, permitted  the  rabbis  to  employ  these  methods 
without  the  consciousness  of  irreverence  or  of  violence. 
The  New  Testament  has  been  tortured  to  make  it  con- 
fess itself  guilty  of  these  practices  ;  but  in  vain.  No 
trace  of  them  can  be  found  in  it. 

When  the  rabbis  connect  text  with  text,  and  compare 
passage  with  passage,  their  inferences,  to  quote  from 
Dopke,  are  "  senseless,"  and  their  conclusions  are  drawn 
from  the  most  "  accidental  resemblances  of  words." 
This,  be  it  observed,  is  the  rule,  or  rather  the  universal 
custom,  and  not  the  exception.  Numerous  illustrative 
instances  are  given  by  Dopke,  who  exclaims,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  one  of  them,  and  that  by  no  means  the 
worst  :  "  What  a  monstrous  bungling  of  deductions." 
I  cite  here  one  of  his  examples  :  "  From  whence  is  it 
certain  that  God  wears  the  phylactery?  From  Is  a. 
62  :  8,  where  it  is  said:   'The  Lord   hath  sworn  by  his 

1  I  am  here  following  Ddpke,  "  Hermeneutik,"  S4.  Surenhusius,  59-70, 
has  illustrated  the  practice  at  greater  length. 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  383 

right  hand,  and  by  the  arm  of  his  strength.'  The 
'right  hand'  signifies  the  law,  according  to  Deut. 
33  :  2  :  'At  his  right  hand  was  a  fiery  law  unto  them.' 
The  '  arm  of  his  strength  '  signifies  the  phylactery,  for 
it  is  written,  'The  Lord  will  give  strength  unto  his 
people.'  " 

Perhaps  the  following  additional  instances  of  rab- 
binic interpretation,  taken  almost  at  random  from 
Dopke,  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the  reader  what 
critics  mean  when  they  tell  us  that  the  apostles  adopted 
the  Jewish  hermeneutics  current  in  their  own  day : 

1.  The  law  given  through  Moses  is  so  expressed 
that  a  thing  may  be  explained  as  clean  for  forty-nine 
different  reasons,  and  as  unclean  for  forty-nine  different 
reasons  ;  because  there  is  a  word  at  Cant.  2  :  4,  the 
letters  of  which  make  the  number  forty-nine. 

2.  According  to  the  opinion  of  some,  each  sentence 
of  the  Scriptures  is  so  full  of  meanings  that  it  may  be 
explained  in  six  hundred  thousand  different  ways. 

3.  At  Zech.  11:7  the  prophet  says  that  he  took 
two  staves,  and  called  one  Beauty  and  the  other  Bands, 
and  thus  fed  the  flock,  with  these  two  shepherd-rods 
in  his  hands.  The  staff  called  Beauty  signified  the 
learned  Jews  of  Palestine,  who  answered  questions 
courteously,  while  the  staff  called  Bands  represented 
the  learned  Jews  of  Babylon,  who  were  forever  trying 
to  defeat  one  another  in  religious  disputation. 

4.  In  Deut.  21  :  18-21  is  the  law  authorizing  the 
parents  of  an  incorrigible  son  to  bring  him  for  punish- 
ment to  the  elders.  But  this  privilege  is  denied  to  the 
parents  if  one  of  them  has  lost  a  hand,  because  it  is 
said  that  they  must  "  lay  hold  "  of  the  boy ;  or  if  one 


384       QUOTATIONS  OF  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

is  lame,  because  it  is  said  that  they  must  "  bring  him 
out  ";  or  if  one  is  dumb,  because  they  "  must  speak" 
the  accusation  ;  or  if  one  is  blind,  because  they  must 
say,  "This  our  son,"  so  being  able  to  designate  him 
with  assurance. 

5.  When  the  living  say  anything  of  a  dead  person, 
he  moves  his  lips  in  the  grave  ;  for  it  is  written  in 
Cant.  7:9:  "  Causing  the  lips  of  the  sleeping  to 
speak."  The  real  subject  of  the  quotation  is  the 
effect  of  wine. 

6.  When  the  blessed  God  comes  into  a  synagogue 
and  does  not  find  ten  persons  there,  he  is  immediately 
angry;  for  it  is  written  at  Isa.  50  :  2  :  "Wherefore 
when  I  came  was  there  no  man  ? " 

7.  It  is  written  in  Dan.  9:21:  "  The  man  Gabriel, 
whom  I  had  seen  in  the  vision  at  the  beginning,  flew 
to  me  in  his  flight."  Because  the  words  "flew"  and 
"flight"  are  both  employed,  it  is  shown  that  Gabriel 
made  two  flights,  pausing  to  rest  between  them. 

8.  In  Exod.  1  5  we  have  the  song  of  Moses  after  the 
passage  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  the  sixteenth  verse  of  which 
is  as  follows  : 

Terror  and  dread  falleth  upon  them; 

By  the  greatness  of  thine  arm  they  are  still  as  a  stone; 

Till  thy  people  pass  over,  O  Jehovah, 

Till  thy  people  pass  over  which  thou  hast  purchased. 

According  to  the  Jewish  interpretation,  the  first  time 
the  phrase  "till  thy  people  pass  over"  is  used,  it  refers 
to  the  entrance  of  Israel  into  Canaan  under  Joshua ; 
and  the  second  time  to  the  entrance  under  Ezra  and 
Zerubbabel. 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  385 

9.   In  Ps.  I  :  5  are  the  words  : 


Therefore  the  wicked  shall  not  stand  in  the  judgment, 
Nor  sinners  in  the  congregation  of  the  righteous. 


By  "the  wicked"  here  are  meant  the  people  who  per- 
ished in  the  flood;  and  by  "sinners"  the  inhabitants 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah. 

10.  It  is  asked  whether  sin  reigns  in  men  from  their 
conception,  or  only  from  their  birth,  and  it  is  decided 
that  the  latter  view  is  correct,  because  it  is  written  : 
"  Sin  coucheth  at  the  door." 

11.  In  Deut.  23  :  13  is  the  direction  that  the  man 
shall  dig  in  the  soil  without  the  camp  and  cover  his  ex- 
crement. Rabbi  Kappara  changes  one  of  the  words 
in  this  passage,  and  thus  interprets  it  as  a  command  to 
put  the  fingers  in  the  ears  when  one  hears  bad  words. 

12.  In  Gen.  1  :  2  it  is  said  that  the  spirit,  or  wind, 
of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters.  There- 
fore he  who  would  not  be  troubled  with  wind  in  his 
stomach  must  drink  his  wine  mixed  with  water. 

13.  In  Gen.  24  :  1  5  it  is  said  that  Rebekah  came  out 
with  a  pitcher  on  her  shoulder.  Therefore  a  woman 
who  would  avoid  the  corpulence  that  sometimes  follows 
child-birth  must  drink  her  wine  mixed  with  unfer- 
mented  juice  of  the  grape.  There  are  some  obscure 
resemblances  of  sound  at  the  basis  of  this  sagacious 
interpretation. 

14.  The  days  of  the  Messiah  shall  last  forty  years, 
because  it  is  said  in  Ps.  95  :  10:  "Forty  years  long 
was  I  grieved  with  that  generation." 

The  days  of  the   Messiah  shall   last   seventy  years, 


386       QUOTATIONS   OF   THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

because  it  is  said  in  Isa.  23  :  15  :  "Tyre  shall  be  for- 
gotten seventy  years." 

The  days  of  the  Messiah  shall  last  four  hundred 
years,  because  it  is  said  in  Ps.  90  :  15  :  "Make  us  glad 
according  to  the  days  wherein  thou  hast  afflicted  us ; " 
and  in  Gen.  15  :  13  :  "They  shall  afflict  them  four 
hundred  years." 

The  days  of  the  Messiah  shall  be  seven  thousand 
years  ;  because  it  is  said  in  Isa.  62  :  5  :  "  As  the  bride- 
groom rejoiceth  over  the  bride,  so  shall  thy  God  re- 
joice over  thee."  The  marriage  festivities  lasted  seven 
days,  and  this  period  was  considered  in  a  special  sense 
the  joy  of  the  man.  But  a  thousand  years  with  God 
are  as  one  day.  Hence  the  conclusion  as  to  the  length 
of  the  Messianic  reign. 

When  our  Lord  came  into  the  world,  he  found  these 
inanities  prevalent  among  the  Jewish  people.  The 
Gospels  show  us  in  many  places  how  his  heart  burned 
with  indignation  that  men  were  fed  on  such  husks.  In- 
stead of  adopting  "the  exegesis  of  his  time,"  he  de- 
nounced it.  To  the  Sadducees  he  said:  "Ye  do  err, 
not  knowing  the  Scriptures."  To  the  scribes  and  Phar- 
isees he  said  :  "  Ye  have  made  void  the  word  of  God 
because  of  your  tradition."  To  the  lawyers  he  said  : 
"  Woe  unto  you  lawyers  !  for  ye  took  away  the  key  of 
knowledge:  ye  entered  not  in  yourselves;  and  them 
that  were  entering  in  ye  hindered."  Nor  did  he  fail  to 
impart  to  his  followers  the  incomparable  treasures  of 
truth  which  he  discovered  in  the  sailed  writings:  "Be- 
ginning from  Moses  and  all  the  prophets,  he  interpreted 
to  them  in  all  the  scriptures  the  things  concerning  him- 
self."     Moreover,  he  added  to   these    lessons    a    special 


RABBINIC   INTERPRETATION  387 

gift  of  discernment  :  "  Then  opened  he  their  mind, 
that  they  might  understand  the  Scriptures."  We  have 
the  results  of  this  instruction  and  enlightenment  in 
the  New  Testament,  whose  writers  expound  the  Old 
with  singular  breadth,  penetration,  profundity,  and  spir- 
ituality. 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE  REFERENCES 


PAGE 

Genesis  1  :  2 87,  385 

Genesis  2  :  1-3 363 

Genesis  4:7 3S5 

Genesis  4:  24 380 

Genesis  9  :  27 170 

Genesis  12  :  3 16,  92 

Genesis  12  :  2 254 

Genesis  12  :  14-17 254 

Genesis  13:15 260 

Genesis  14:  18 124 

Genesis  15  :  1-7 252 

Genesis  15  :  5 254 

Genesis  15:  13 386 

Genesis  17  :  5 252,  253 

Genesis  17  :  7,  8 260,  264 

Genesis  17  :  8 264 

Genesis  17  :  19 90,  101 

Genesis  18  :  5 59 

Genesis  18  :  14 90, 101 

Genesis  18  :  18 92 

Genesis  19  :  26  124 

Genesis  21  :  1-3 341 

Genesis  22  :  16,  17 269 

Genesis  22  :  18 16 

Genesis  24:  15 285 

Genesis  24  :  16 287 

Genesis  25  :  23 350 

Genesis  27:  13 59 

Genesis  28:  12 214 

Genesis  30  :  2 90 

Genesis  32  :  25,  31 101 

Genesis  35  :  19,  20 297,  298 

Genesis  42  :  16 59 

Genesis  43,44,45 292 

Exodus  3  :  6 337 

Exodus  9  :  16 27 

Exodus  12  :  46 247 


PAGE 

Exodus  13  :  2 77 

Exodus  15:  16 3S4 

Exodus  17  :  12 345 

Exodus  20 30 

Exodus  21  :  32 313 

Exodus  22  :  16,  17 287 

Exodus  23:  19 258 

Exodus  27  :  20 59 

Exodus  34  :  26 258 

Exodus  34  :  28 30 

Leviticus  18  :  1-5 43 

Leviticus  21  :  14 287 

Leviticus  22  :  28 258 

Leviticus  24  :  2 59 

Leviticus  26  :  11,  12 58,  92 

Numbers  5  :  2,  3 101 

Numbers  6  :  9 90 

Numbers  9  :12 247 

Numbers  11  :  13,  22 100 

Numbers  14  :  28-30 364,  366 

Numbers  21  :9 240 

Numbers  22 283,  288 

Numbers  23 283,288 

Numbers  24 283,  2S8 

Numbers  24  :  17-19 340 

Deuteronomy  1  :  34,  35 368 

Deuteronomy  1  :  36-39 368 

Deuteronomy  4  :  13 30 

Deuteronomy  5  :  22 30 

Deuteronomy  10  :  4 30 

Deuteronomy  10  :  11 30 

Deuteronomy  12  :  9 365 

Deuteronomy  12:  8-11 366 

Deuteronomy  14  :  21 258 

Deuteronomy  18  :  15 292 

389 


J9Q 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


PAGE 

Deuteronomy  18  :  15-19 274 

Deuteronomy  21  :  18-21 383 

Deuteronomy  22  :  6,  7 257 

Deuteronomy  22  :  19,  23,  28 287 

Deuteronomy  22  :  20,  21 286 

Deuteronomy  23  :  1 101 

Deuteronomy  23  :  13 385 

Deuteronomy  25  :  4 256 

Deuteronomy  29  :  4 92,  101,  357 

Deuteronomy  30  :  11-14  183 

Deuteronomy  32  :  4 345 

Deuteronomy  32  :  21 355 

Deuteronomy  32  :  43 62,  329 

Deuteronomy  33  :  2 383 

Ruth  4  :  11 299 

1  Samuel  7  :  17 297 

1  Samuel  8  :  15 267 

1  Samuel  9 298 

1  Samuel  10  :  2-6 298 

2  Samuel  5  :  19,  20 31 

2  Samuel  7:  12-16 322 

2  Samuel  7  :  14 56,  57,  259 

2  Samuel  23  :  17 31 

1  Kings  9  :  3-9 31 

1  Kings  19  :  10-18 47 

2  Kings  2:  20  59 

2  Kings  25:  12 297 

2  Kings  25  :  18-21 296 

l  Chronicles  n  >.  19 31 

1  Chronicles  14  :  9-11 31 

2  Chronicles  7  :  12-22 31 

Job  17  :  14 319 

Job  28  :   11  25G 

Job  33:  18 , 820 

Psalma  i  :6 B85 

Psalma  2 286,  287 

'  :  8 251 

Psalma  2  :  7 62 

Psalmi  2  :  '.i 3io 

Paalmi  6  :  10 848 


PAGK 

Psalms  8  :  5 7 

Psalms  10 236 

Psalms  14  :  2,  3 348 

Psalms  14  :  3 114 

Psalms  16 321 

Psalms  16  :  8-11 317 

Psalms  19  :  2-4 87 

Psalms  19  :  4 164 

Psalms  19  :  10 112 

Psalms  22 Ill,  22,  324 

Psalms  22  :  1 241 

Psalms  22  :  7 251 

Psalms  22  :  9 85 

Psalms  22:  18 246 

Psalms  22  :  22 62 

Psalms  29 330 

Psalms  29:  1 330 

Psalms29:  11 102 

Psalms  31  :  5 26 

Psalms  34  :  20 217 

Psalms  35  :  19 245 

Psalms  36:  1 318 

Psalms  10  :  6-8 20 

Psalms  -10  :  7,  8 272 

Psalms  il 241 

Psalms  n  :  9 316 

Psalms  45 : 4,  5 340 

Psalms  45:  6,7 288 

Psalms  53  :  3,  4 348-350 

Psalms  68:  18 58 

Psalms  68:27 101 

Psalms  68  :  35 102 

Psalms  69 241 

Psalms  69  :4 245 

Psalms 69  :  9 77,  828 

Psalms  69  :  22,  2:1 255 

Psalma  69  :  25 92,  248 

Psalms  78  :  2 306 

Psalms  78  :  5-7 86 

Psalms  7S:  21 215 

Psalms  89 260 

B  :  19-37 "22 

Psalms  90  :  L5 288 

Psalms  95:  7,  11 869 

Psalms  95    10 880 

Psalms  95:  n 64 

Psalms  96 880 

Psalms  97 880 

Psalmi  L02  i  25-27 270 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


391 


PAGE 

Psalms  103 330 

Psalms  103  :  20,  21 330 

Psalms  104  :  4_ 10 

Psalms  109 249-252 

Psalms  109  :  3 245 

Psalms  109  :  8 92 

Psalms  110 237,340-344 

Psalms  116  :  10 153 

Psalms  118  :  22,  23 308 

Psalms  118  :  26 147 

Psalms  119  :  24 102 

Psalms  119  :  97 102 

Psalms  119  :  161 245 

Psalms  122  :  2 101 

Psalms  122  :  4 86 

Psalms  122  :  4,  5 101 

Psalms  122  :  6,  7 101 

Psalms  132 260 

Psalms  132  :  11-18 322 

Psalms  147  :  9 256 

Ps:ilms  147  :  20 86 

Psalms  143 330 

Psalms  113  :  2 330 

Proverbs  3  :  11, 12 17 

Proverbs  12:  22 345 

Proverbs  18  :  4 114 

Ecclesiastes  7  :  20 114,  348 

Song  of  Solomon  2  :  4 383 

Song  of  Soiomon  6  :  8 286 

Song  of  Solomon  7  :  9 3S4 

Isaiah  1  :  9 355 

Isaiah  6 243 

Isaiah  6  :  9,  10 243 

Isaiah  7  :3 281,326 

Isaiah  7  :  14 276,  290 

Isaiah  8  :  1-4,  18 281 

Isaiah  8  :  3,  4 326 

Isaiah  8  :  8 282,  288,  289 

Isaiah  8  :  14 92 

Isaiah  8  :  17,  18 326 

Isaiah  8  :  IS 63 

Isaiah  8  :  23 1S6 

Isaiah  9  : 1,  2 1S6 

Isaiah  9  :  5 341 

Isaiah  10  :  20-22 326 


PAGE 

3,92 

Isaiah  28:  11,12 

50 

45,92 

Isaiah  29  :  10 

92,356 

12,76 

75 

233 

234 

292 

26 

992 

357 

384 

320 

149 

150 

Isaiah  52  :  11,  12 

303 

152 

Isaiah  53 Ill,  112, 

18G,  341,  342 
243 

292 

25 

92,  93 

114 

348 

3,92 

115 

Isaiah  61  :  1,2 

327 

3S6 

Isaiah  65  :  1,  2 

356 

148 

255 

92.  93 

255 

92 

31 

31 

Jeremiah  31  : 1,  4, 20,  22,  23.. 
Jeremiah  31  :  1-40 

58 

294 

293 

392 


INDEX   OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


PAGE 

Jeremiah  31  :  31-34 370 

Jeremiah  39  :  1-7 296 

Jeremiah  40:  1 296 

Lamentations  3 Ill,  112 

Ezekiel  36  :  28 5S 

Ezekiel  37  :  27 58,  9z 

Daniel  7  :  25 87 

Daniel  9  :  7-. 9 31 

Daniel  9  :  21 381 

Daniel  9  :  25,  26 342 

Daniel  9  :  27 232 

Hosea  1  :  6-10 354 

Hoseal:  10 92,350 

Hosea  2  :  14 352 

Hosea  2:  23, 92,350 

Hosea  11  :  1 25,  262,  290 

Hosea  13:  14 319 

Joel  1  :8 287 

Joel  2  :  28-32 82 

Amos  5  :  25-27 83 

Amos  8:  13 2«7 

Amos  9  :  11,  12 14 

Micah  5  :  1-5 289 

Micah  5  :  2 74 

Habakkuk  2  :  3,  4 165,  344 

Habakkuk  2  :  4-14 844 

Habakkuk  3 840 

Zephaniah  1  :  14-18 840 

Zechariah  9 :  9 342 

Zecbariata  9  :  9-17 186 

Zechariah  1 1  :  7 383 

Zeohariata  11  :  13 811 

Zechariah  12:  10 27, 7s 

Zechariah  13:7 309 

Malaehl  l  :  2,3 850 

Malaehl  2  :  3 880 

Malaehl  8  :  1  76,92,  21s 

Malaohi  1 :8 340 

Malachi4  :  5,6 92,  248 


Matthew  1  :  22,  23 

PAGE 

Matthew  2  :6 

Matthew  2:  15 

74,289 

25,  262,  2'.'0 

Matthew  2:  17,18 

312  < 

Matthew  2  :  19,  20 

Matthew  2  :22 

Matthew  2:  23 

Matthew  3  :  3 

Matthew  3  :  14 

292 

113 

104,110 

74,75,233 

86 

86 

25 

Matthew  13:11 

Matthew  13:34,35 

279 

305 

Matthew  17  :  1U-12 

248 

Matthew  21  :  42 

Matthew  22  :  29 

308  * 

386 

Matthew  22  :  44 

Matthew  23  :  89  

340 

14S 

Matthew  21  :  86 

Matthew  20 :  81 

187 

809 

Matthew  27  :  9 

311 

Matthew  22  :  29 

886 

386 

Mark  7  :  7 

77 

Mark  9:  11-13 

248 

INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


393 


PAGE 

Mark  9  :  13 240 

Mark  9  :  48 148 

Mark  10:24 328 

Mark  11 :  9 147 

Mark  11  :  17 92 

Mark  12  :  10,  11 308 

Mark  12:  26 337 

Mark  12  :  3G 340 

Mark  13:  14 232 

Mark  14:  27 309 

Luke  1  :  17 92,  240,  248 

Luke  2  :  23 74,  77 

Luke  2  :  32 278 

Luke  3  :  4-6 233 

Luke  4  :  IS,  19 327 

Luke  4  :  28-30 113 

Luke  7  :  27 76 

Luke  8  :  31 184 

Luke  10:  24 173 

Luke  11  :52 386 

Luke  12  :  24 256 

Luke  14  :  26 256 

Luke  17  :  9 S5 

Luke  19  :  38 147 

Luke  19  :  46 92 

Luke  20  :  17 308 

Luke  20:  37 241 

Luke  20  :  42,  43 340 

Luke  21  :  20 232 

Luke  22  :  37 241 

Luke  23  :  46 26 

Luke  24  :  5,  6 85 

Luke  24:  27 386 

Luke  24  :  27,  44,  45 240 

Luke  24  :  45 387 

John  1  :  21,25 248 

John  1  :  23 233 

John  1  :  29,  36 247 

John  1  :46 Ill,  113 

John  1  :  51 244 

John  2  :  17 74,  77,  323 

John  2  :  19,20 53 

John  3  :  3-5 44 

John  3  :  6 53 

John  3  :  12, 13 86 

John  3:  14 53,240 

John  4  :  10, 11 53 


PAGE 

John  4  :  14, 15 53 

John  4:  32,33 53 

John  4  :  35 53 

Joun  6:  26-59 291 

John  6  :  27 53 

John  6  :  31 245 

John  6  :  32 53 

John  6:  45 110,279 

John  6  :52,  53,  63 53 

John  7  :  3S 113,  279 

John  7  :  42 75 

John  7:52 Ill 

John  8  :  38,  39,  56 53 

Johu  10  :  35,  36 53 

John  11  :  11, 12 53 

John  11  :  49-52 283,  288 

John  12  :  13 147 

John  12:40 64,279 

John  12  :  40,  41 243 

John  13:8 53 

John  13:  18 240,  316 

John  15  :  25 240,  245,  323 

John  17 328 

John  17  :  5 238 

John  17  :  12 280 

John  17  :  24,  25 53 

John  18  :  9 280 

John  19  :  24 245 

John  19  :  28 323 

John  19  :  36 246 

John  19  :  37 27,  74,  78 

John  20  :  27 53 

John  21  :  5 329 

Acts  1  :  15,  16 252 

Acts  1  :  16 249 

Acts  1  :  20 92,  248 

Acts  2  :  17-21 74,  82,  279 

Acts  2  :  19,  20 279 

Acts  2  :  25-28 64 

Acts  2:  25-32 317 

Acts  2:  34,  35 340 

Acts  3  :  22 292 

Acts  3  :  22,  23 275 

Acts  6  :  11 308 

Acts  7  :  37 275,  292 

Acts  7  :  42,  43 74,  83 

Acts  8  :  32,  33 64 

Acts  11  :  16 279 


394 


INDEX  OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


PAGE 

Acts  13:  33 237,238 

Acts  13:  35 317 

Acts  13:  30,37 319 

Acts  13:  40 110 

Acts  13  :  47 279 

Acts  15  :  15 Hit 

Acts  15  :  16 04 

Acts  15  :  1G,  17 14 

Acta  17  :  28 xiv. 

Acts  18  :  24 xii. 

Acts  28:  20 279 

Romans  1  :3 201 

Romans  1  :  17 344,345 

Romans  2  :  24 - 14'J 

Romans  3  :  10 114 

Eomana  3  :  iu-18 348 

Romans  4  :  3-25 252 

Romans  4: 11, 12,  16 268 

Romans 4  :  io,  is 261 

Romans  4  :  17 252 

Romans  7 no 

Romans  9  :  0-8 208 

Romans  9  :  7 201 

Romans  9: 13 850 

Romans 'J:  14-24 351 

Romans  9:  17 27 

Romans  9:  25,26 92,351 

Romans  9  :  27-29 3.".5 

Romans  9:  88 45,  '.'2 

Romans  10  :  6-8 188 

Romans  10  :  11 46,92 

Romans  10:  16 150 

Romans  10:  18 104 

Romans  10:  19-21 355 

Romans  11  :  2-4 47 

Romans  11  :  8 92,279,866 

11  i  '.'.  10 255 

Romans  11  :  12 6 

Romans  11  i  26,27 3,92 

Romans  18  :  14 88 

Romans  14  :  ll 357 

Romans  14:  21 s7 

Romans  US  i  8 B38 

l  Corinthians  l  :  19 188 

l  Corinthians 2  :9 161 

l  Corinthians  2;  13 80 

1  Corinthians  0  :  7 847,  891 


PAGE 

1  Corinthians  9  :  9,  10 

1  Corinthians  10 

1  Corinthians  10  :  1,  2 

256 

116 

291 

1  Corinthians  10  :  11 

i  Corinthians  18 

1  Corinthians  14  :  21,22  .. 

57 

xiii. 

50 

1  Corinthians  15  :  55 

153 

116 

2  Corinthians  6  :  16 

58,92 

2  Corinthians  6  :  18 

56,259 

300 

2  Corinthians  12  :  9 

85 

Galatians  8  :  8 

Galatians8  :  11-18 

Galatian8  8 :  15-18 

16,92 

344,  846 

268 

868 

( ralatians  4  :  21-31 

116,117 

134 

58 

85 

173 

288 

53 

Hebrews  1  1  B 02, 

...  9,62 

880 

10 

11,  brews  1  1  B,  B 



270 

r.u 

Hebrews  L:  18 

840 

INDEX   OF  SCRIPTURE   REFERENCES 


395 


PAGE 

Hebrews  2:  6-8- 7,64 

Hebrews2  :  8-11 9 

Hebrews  2  .  12 62 

Hebrews  2  •  12, 13 324 

Hebrews  2  :  13 63 

Hebrews  3  :  7  to  4  :  11 362 

Hebrews  3  :  12-19 367 

Hebrews  4:  1-11 367 

Hebrews  4  :  3 64 

Hebrews  4  :  7 362 

Hebrews  5    5 237 

Hebrews  5  :  5-10 238 

Hebrews  6:  13-19 269 

Hebrews  7 116,  123,  291 

Hebrews  7  :  3 124 

Hebrews  8  :  8-13 370 

Hebrews  10:  1 291 

Hebrews  10  :  7 272 

Hebrews  10  :  5-9 20 

Hebrews  10  :  5-10 273 

Hebrews  10  :  10 24 


PAGE 

Hebrews  10:  15-18 370 

Hebrews  10  :  36-39 367,369 

Hebrews  10  :  37,  38 165 

Hebrews  11 260 

Hebrews  11  :  3 87 

Hebrews  12  :  5-13 17 

1  Peter  1  :  12 173 

1  Peter  1  :  10-13 322 

1  Peter  1 :  19 247 

1  Peter  1 :  25 279 

1  Peter  2  :  6,  8 45 

1  Peter  2  :  7 308 

1  John  2  :  23 47 

Revelation 247 

Revelation  9  :  1,  2,  11  1S4 

Revelation  11  :  7 1S4 

Revelation  17  :  18 184 

Revelation  20  :  1,  3 184 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS  REFERRED  TO 


Addison,  169,  374. 

.iEschylus,  70,  212,  215,  217,  218,231,3.32, 

334. 
Alexander,  5,  6,  356. 
Alford,  10,  294,  350,  362. 
Ambrose,  329. 
Anselm,  329. 
Antimachus,  69. 
Aquinas,  329. 
Aratus,  xiv. 

Aristotle,  38,  66,  110,  160. 
Arnold,  Matthew,  x. 

Baur,  53. 
Baumlein,  50. 

Heck,  194, 195. 

Beet,  53. 

Bengel,  165. 

Beza,  362. 

Biesenthal,  329. 

Bleek,  24,  152, 189, 194,  315,  362. 

Bohnie,  187,  329,  362. 

Bredenkarnp,  6. 

Briggs,  80. 

Broadus,  294,  301,  311. 

Bulwer,  227. 

Banyan,  1 10, 121,123. 

Burke,  xiii.,  141,155,374. 

Burns,  xiv. 

Byron,  120,208,335. 

Calvin,  79,  80,  301. 

(  arlyle,  124,  12;.,  207. 

Chambers,  80. 

Chatham,  106. 

Cheyne,  5, 6, 276. 

Cicero,  69,  70,  71,  72,  108,109,117,  164,  B28, 

874 
Cleanthee,  xiv. 
Coleridge,  xlll. 

<  on]  beam,  63. 
396 


Conybeare,  Mrs.,  228. 
Cook,  16. 

Cowper,  xiv.,  184, 185. 
Cremer,  189. 
Cruttwell,  222. 

Dante,  119,  121,  123. 

Davidson,  136. 

Dawson,  87, 

De  Foe,  232. 

Delitzsch,  10, 16,  270,  234,  329,  356. 

Demosthenes,  xii. 

De  Wette,  191,  329. 

Dindorf,  362. 

DSpke,  xvii.,  134,  187,  372,  373,  374,  375, 

376,  377,  378,  383. 
Donaldson,  50. 
Drake,  80. 

Eicbborn,  134. 

Ellicott,  10,54,362,366. 

Empedocles,  143. 

Ennius,  41,70,  163,  164. 

Epicharmiis,  1 18. 

Epicurus,  70,  108,  109. 

Erasmus,  84. 

Ernestl,  190. 

Euripides,  66,211, 217. 

Everett,  Edward,  143. 

Ewald,  80,  152,  154,  276,  315,362. 

Falrbalrn,  801. 

I    .: ,    "I. 

Farrar,  xvi. 

I'latt,  r>.{. 

FlQgge,  181 
Fox,  166. 

FQrst,  12. 

Geler,  1-.'. 


INDEX   OF   AUTHORS   REFERRED   TO 


397 


Gerlach,  Otto  von,  278. 

Gervinus,  2U6. 

GeseDius,  11,  12,  79,  285. 

Gill,  80. 

Gladstone,  184. 

Goethe,  120,  121,  20G,  208,  228,  229,  335. 

Goodwin,  98,  177, 179. 

Grant,  38. 

Griesbach,  190. 

Hackett,  321. 

Hardingharu,  G.  G.,  41. 

Hartung,  50. 

Henderson,  5,  6. 

Hemsterhuys,  105. 

Hengstenberg,  154,  321. 

Heraclitus,  143. 

Herodotus,  208. 

Hesiod,  39, 130, 134,  210. 

Hilgenfeld,  43. 

Hitzig,  6,  79,  80,  294. 

Hodge,  356. 

Hofinann,  9,  10, 118,  154,  329,  352, 356. 

Homer,  38,  65,  93,  103,  104,  110,  134,  144, 

146,  159,  161,  162,  163,  176,  375. 
Horace,  41. 
Hugo,  229,  230. 
Hupfeld,  154. 

Irby,  Miss,  141. 

Jamblicbus,  106,  163. 
Jennings,  362. 
Johnson,  Dean,  8. 
Johnson,  Samuel,  141,  142. 
Jowett,  65,  107, 116. 
Julian,  1S4. 

Keightly,  203. 

Keil,  16,  79,  80,  301. 

Kennicott,  250. 

Kimchi,  79. 

Kling,  53. 

Klotz,  50. 

Knobel,  5,6. 

Kriiger,  50. 

Kuenen,  xvii.,  3,  4,  5,  6,  12,  14,  15, 16, 17, 
18,  48,  50,  51,  56,  57,  58,  63,  118,  119,  139, 
171,  184,  237,  239,  251,  272,  273,  315,  317, 
318,  320,  323. 

Kiihner,  50. 


Lange,  16,  294. 
Le  Clerc,  187. 
Liddell  and  Scott,  50. 
Longfellow,  223. 
Lowe,  362. 
Lucian,  96,  180. 
Liicke,  194. 
Liinemann,  329. 
Lucretius,  211. 
Luthart,  80. 
Luther,  19, 154. 

Mackenzie,  Miss,  141. 

Mansel,  294. 

Marsh,  118. 

Maurer,  80. 

Maximus  Tyrius,  99, 104,  161, 162. 

Mendelsohn,  250. 

Michaelis,  J.  D.,  189. 

Michaelis,  J.  H.,  189. 

Milton,  xiv.,  200,  375. 

Meyer,  54,  55, 149,  152,  153,  154,  187,  285, 

294,  315,  355,  363. 
Moliere,  208,  229. 
Muller,  Max,  228. 

Niigelsbach,  295, 356. 
Nettleship,  221. 
Newman,  W.  L.,  160. 

Olshausen,  194. 
Orelli,  194. 
Origen,  152,  375. 

Paley,  32. 

Palfrey,  118, 197,  278. 

Parmenides,  143. 

Passow,  50. 

Paul  us,  349. 

Perowne,  362. 

Philo,  xiii.,  43, 100, 101,  133, 135,  136,  375. 

Pindar,  219. 

Plato,  xii.,  65,  66,  68,  93,  94,  95,  104,  105, 

106, 173,  174,  184,  374. 
Plumptre,  294. 

Plutarch,  89,  97,  98,  118, 144, 146,  179. 
Politz,  134. 
Pope,  84. 
Porphyry,  89. 

Quintilian,  109. 
I 


398 


INDEX   OF   AUTHORS   REFERRED   TO 


Racine,  229. 

Rosenuiuller,  79,  80, 134. 
Rost,  50. 

Rousseau,  141,  205. 
Riiekerl,  187. 
Ruskin,  173. 

Sayce,  124. 

Schiller,  20.5,  229. 

Schleusner,  277. 

Schniid,  Ch.  Fr.,  189. 

Schrader,  152. 

Schultz  53, 134,  3G2. 

Seniler,  190. 

Seneca,  100, 146, 164. 

Shakespeare,  xiv.,  200,  230,  362. 

Siegfried,  43 

Sophocles,  38,  70, 215,  216,  217. 

Sophocles,  E.  A.,  278. 

Spenser,  119, 122,  200. 

Stier,  53,  84,  356. 

Stuart,  9,  191,321,370. 

Surenhusius,  382. 

Swift,  128. 

Syuesius,  118. 

Taylor,  99,  107. 
Taylor,  Bayard,  207. 
Taylor,  C,  250. 
Taylor,  Jeremy,  44. 
Teller,  190. 


Tennyson,  229,  230,  239. 
Terence,  99. 

Thayer,  J.  H.,  50,  278. 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  191. 

Tholuck,  23, 118, 189, 194, 196,  280, 329,  355. 

Toy,  xvii.,  8,  45,  46,  79,  80,  81,  83,  92,  114, 
115,  152, 151,  166,  232,  239,  275,  278,  285, 
315,  320,  323,  325,  337,  339,  341,  354,  359, 
360,  361,  362. 

Trollope,  84. 

Turretin,  134. 

Tyrt;ius,  66. 

Umbreit,  1S9,  194. 

Virgil,  41,  211,220. 
Voltaire,  208. 

Wagner,  Richard,  230. 

Webster,  375. 

Webster,  Noah,  143. 

Welldon,38. 

Westcott,  24,  25. 

Wetstein,  187. 

WMttier,  199. 

Woods,  Leonard,  277,  278,  280, 290, 292. 

Wright,  79. 

Xenophon,  95. 

Zacharias  of  Chrysopolis,  152. 
Zlmmer,  10. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS  QUOTED 


Abbot,  Ezra,  44. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  249. 

Addison,  138. 

Adeney,  W.  F.,  195, 196. 

^Eschylus.181,214. 

Alexander,  230,  274,  289,  305,  340,  342. 

Alford,  153,  165,  194,  235,  202,  314,  357, 

Aristotle,  67,  89,  103,  109,  162,  196. 

Bacon,  192. 

Bahr,  220. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  103. 

Baumgarten-Crusius,  349. 

Bilrotb,  188. 

Bissell,  31. 

Blackie,  211. 

Bleek,  325,  366. 

Bouillet,  90. 

Briggs,  197. 

Broadus,  14,  75,  77,  284,  2S7,  302,  337. 

Bryant,  145,  160. 

Bulwer,  205,  225,  226. 

Burnham,  Sylvester,  242,  266. 

Bunyan,  125,  170. 

Carlyle,  124, 130,  207. 

Chase,  Thos.,  164. 

Cheyne,  234. 

Chrysostom,  190. 

Churton,  91. 

Cleanthes,  xiv. 

Cloag,  250. 

Cicero,  40,41,  42,  69,  70,  71,  72, 147. 

Couybeare,  264. . 

Conybeare  and  Howson,  86,  101. 

Cope,  38,  103. 

Cowper,  154. 

Craik,  200,  201. 

Cranch,  142. 

Cruttwell,  220,221,  222. 

Curtius,  212,  213. 

Dante,  223. 


Darwin,  304. 

Davidson,  118,  119,  134,  135,  136,  186. 

Delitzsch,  307,  325,  328. 

De  Wette,  23, 189. 

Dopke,  375,  376,  381,  382. 

Driver,  341. 

Dry  den,  84. 

Duuscombe,  163. 

Diintzer,  205. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  363. 

Ebrard,  329,  379. 
Ellicott,  59. 
Ennius,  70. 
Epictetus,  104. 
Euripides,  72,  96,  158. 
Everett,  Edward,  142, 173. 
Ewald,  310,  320. 

Farrar,  88,  264. 

Gallus,  69. 
Garnett,  204. 
Gervinus,  201,  202. 
Gladstone,  140,  141,  157,  171. 
Godet,  xv.,  268. 
Goodrich,  155,  156. 
Goodwin,  89. 
Gordon,  A.  J.,  85. 
Gosman,  265. 
Gould,  55. 
Grote,  215. 
Grotius,  192. 
Guthrie,  85. 

Hackett,  15,  39,  82, 104, 146,  249. 
Hall,  Robert,  87, 141,  172. 
Hanna,  Rev.  Wm.  T.  C,  xii. 
Heugstenberg,  80,  318. 
Hesiod,  33,  37,  67,  89, 179. 
Higginson,  T.  \V.,  104. 
Hitzig,  286. 
Hodge,  54,  150,  357. 

399 


400 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS  QUOTED 


Hofmann,  174. 

Homer,  37,  38,  39,  40,  41,  65,  71,  72,  83,  93, 
94,  95,  90, 97, 98,  99,  109,  143,  144,  145,  14G, 
147,  158,  159,  ICO,  161,  103,  174,  175,  176, 
177,  179,  180,  182,211. 

Hood,  Edwin  Paxton,  204. 

Horace,  155, 157,  171. 

Jacobitz,  96. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  142. 

Jowett,  06,  1G7. 

Julian,  08,  106,  162,  163,  183. 

Junius,  1.37. 

Keightly,  203,  211. 

Kingsley,  223. 

Kling,  54. 

Kueuen,  1,  2,  12,  14,  15, 16,  44,  45,  47,  48, 
49, 62, 119,  139,  236,  237,  238,  239,  250, 270 
272,  290,  292,  316,  317,  326,  362,  363. 

Ladd,  315. 

Lightfoot,  261,  262,  314. 
Long,  164. 
Longfellow,  199. 
Lowell,  125,  141,  202. 
Lucan,  157. 
Lucian,  40,  105, 176. 
Luther,  137. 
Lysias,  88. 

Mac  Lane,  Rev.  W.  W.,  241. 

Macrobius,  221. 

Mahly,  218. 

Mansel,  85. 

Meyer,  59,  79,  116,  117,  118,244,259,349, 

aio. 

Milton,  140,  143,  155,  109,  170,  203. 
Moulton,  866. 

MQIlcr,  K.  O.,  129,  130,131,210,213,215, 
217,219,230. 

Orelli,  193. 

Paley,  219,  336. 

Palfrey,  191. 

I'hilo,  90. 

Pindar,  96, 106, 130,210,219. 

I'itt,  15.-,. 

Plato,  ::l-38,  05,  103,  107,  126-128,  143,  158, 
159,  175,  170,  181,188. 

Plotinoa,  lor,,  too. 
Plnmptre,  214. 


Plutarch,  39,  103,  145,  176,  177,  178,  179, 

180. 
Pocock,  350. 
Proclus,  107. 

Reid,  41. 
Keuss,  43,  380. 
Riddle,  118. 
Riehm,  237. 
Riickert,  350. 
Ruskin,  87,  102,  209. 

Sanday,  29,  218. 

Scherer,  205,  206,  207,  228. 

Schiller,  205. 

Schneidewin,  F.  W.,  216. 

Scott,  Rev.  James,  109. 

Sears,  86. 

Seneca,  42. 

Shakespeare,  141,  157,  201,  257. 

Sherlock,  192. 

Shore,  54. 

Smith,  R.  Payne,  296. 

Sophocles,  147,  178. 

Southey,  140,  167. 

Stainsbury,  229. 

Steele,  12'J. 

Stuart,  190. 

Strabo,  G9,  146. 

Taylor,  101. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  20G,  332. 
Taylor,  Win.  M.,  87. 
Tennyson,  173,  198,200,222. 

Tholuck,  27,  187,  190,  210,  278.  290. 
Tooke,  40,  0s, 'J0,  177. 
Trollope,  41. 
Turpie,  2,  7. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry  J.,  229. 

Vatablna,  319. 

Virgil,  42,  142,  146,  155,  156,  1G4,  168.  169. 

Way  land,  R5. 

Webster,  Daniel,  84, 172. 

Welldon,28,67. 

while,  Richard  Grant, 202. 

Wiikins.  99. 

Winer  66. 

Woods,  Leonard,  276. 

Wright,  78. 


INDEX  OF  BOOKS  REFERRED  TO  OR  QUOTED 


PAGE 

Academical  Lectures.    Palfrey 191 

Academics  of  Cicero  The.    Reid....41,  70 
Advancement     of     Learning,    The. 

Bacon 192 

Adventurer,  The.    Johnson 142 

^Eclogues.    Spenser 123 

.ffineid.     Virgil. 

42,  100,  142,  146.  156,  169,  220,  221,  222 

Agamemnon.     iEschylus 214,  333 

Aids  to  Reflection.    Coleridge xiii. 

Alcibiades.     Plato 105 

Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Laws.  The. 

Philo 90,  101 

American  Commentary.  The 55 

Among  My  Books.     Lowell 141 

Analyse  Raisonnee.    Fallue 84 

Andria.    Terence 99 

Andromache.     Euripides 72 

Annals,  The.    Ennius 41 

Antigone.    Sophocles 38.  178 

Apocrypha,  The 91 

Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament, 

The.     Bissell  31 

Apology,  The.    Plato 159 

Apology  for  Herodotus.    Estieune...  208 
Authorship  of   the  Fourth  Gospel, 

The.    Abbot 44 

Bacchanals,  The.    Euripides 20S 

Bashfulness.     Plutarch 179 

Battle  of  the  Books,  The.    Swift 123 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  The 44 

British  Eloquence.     Goodrich 155,  156 

Bucolics,  The.    Virgil 220 

Caesar.    Voltaire 209 

Cassars,  The.     Julian 183 

Caxtoniana.    Bulwer 227 

Changes  of  Scripture  Names,  The. 
Philo 90,  101 


PAGE 

Charon.    Lucian 96 

Children  of  Hercules,  The.    Eurip- 
ides   219 

Choephorse.    Euripides 218 

Christolcgy.    Ileugsteuberg 321 

Cicero.     Trollope 41 

Commentaries  of  Csesar,  The.    Trol- 
lope     84 

Commentaries  on  Shakespeare.   Ger- 

vinus 201 

Commentary  :     Critical,     Doctrinal, 

and  Homiletical.    Lange 118,  265 

Commentary  on  Ephesians.  Ellicott.  59 
Commentary  on  Ephesians.  Meyer.  59 
Commeniary  on  First  Corinthians. 

Bilroth 188 

Commentary  on  Matthew.    Gerlach.  278 

Commentary  on  the  Acts.    Gloag 250 

Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 

Hebrews.    Stuart 190 

Commentary  on  the  Psalms.    Heng- 

stenberg 318 

Commentary    on    the    Timseus    of 

Plato.    Proclus 107 

Comus.    Millon 203 

Conjugal  Precepts.    Plutarch 97 

Consolation  to  Apollonius.  Plutarch.  98 
Contradictions  of  the  Stoics,  The. 

Plutarch 89 

Convito,  II.    Dante 223 

Cowper's  Letters 154 

Creeds  of  Christendom,  The.  Schafl".    61 

Daniel  the  Beloved.  Wm.  M.  Taylor.  87 
Defense  of  the  Portraits.     Lucian...  104 

De  Finibus.    Cicero 108 

Delay  of   the  Divine  Justice,  The. 

Plutarch 103,  145 

DeOffieiis.    Cicero 41 

De  Oratore.    Cicero 99 

401 


402  INDEX  OF  BOOKS  REFERRED  TO  OR  QUOTED 


PAGE 

De  Oratore  of  Cicero,  The.   Wilkins.    99 

Der  Brief  an  'lie-  Bebraer.    Week 366 

Der  Brief  an  die  Hebraer.     Kurtz....  367 

DieBiisser.     Wagner 230 

Die  Sieger.    Wagner 230 

Discouragements  and  Supportsof  the 
Christian  Minister,  The.     Eobert 

Ball 171 

Dissertations.  Maximus  Tyrius..l04,  161 

Diver, The.    Schiller 205 

Divine  O.medy,  The.     Dante 123,  223 

Doctor,  The.     Southey 140,  157 

Eclogues.      Virgil 155,  1C8 

Electra.    Euripides 218 

Elements   of    Moral    Science,   The. 

Wayland 85 

Emile.     Rousseau 205 

Enneads,  The.     Plotinus 105 

Epicharmus,  Tha    Ennina 70 

Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  The.    Jowett 

116,  107 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  The.  Ebrard.  379 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  The.    Tho- 

luck 19! 

Ernest  Maltravers.     Bulwer 226,  3:;3 

Ethics  of  Aristotle,  The.    Grant 109 

Eumenides,  The.    iEschylus 215 

l-.uiiK  nides  of  iEschylus, The.    K.  O. 

Midler 215 

Enripides  Werke.    Mahly 218 

Euripides,  with  an  English  Commen- 
tary.   Paley 219 

Evidences    of    Christianity,    The. 

Paley B86 

Exegetische  Probleme.    Zimmer 10 

Fables.    La  Fontaine 208 

Face  Appearing  In  the  Orb  of  the 

Moon,  The.    Plutarch l»4,  178 

Faerie  Queeoe,  The.    Spenser 

119,12 
Faust.    Goethe 

120,  128,   124,  i 

Faust    Bayard  Taylor  206 

inker  Bill  Oration.  Webster.  i:.' 
Polly  of  Seeking  Many  Friends,  The 

Plutarch 3'j 


PAGE 

Fourth  Gospel  the  Heart  of  Christ, 

The.    Sears 86 

Fragments.     Euripides 96 

Fragments.     Sophocles 147 

Gargantua.      Rabelais 2o8 

Genesis.     Gosman 265 

Georgics.The.    Virgil 42,  104 

Geechichte der  Koniischen  Literatur. 

Bahr 220 

Glaucus.    iEscbylus 213 

Gleanings  of  Past  Years.   Gladstone. 

140,  157,  171 

Goethe's  Helena.    Carlyle 124 

Gospel  in  Ezekiel,  The.    Guthrie 85 

Gospels  in  the  Second  Century,  The. 

Sanday 29 

Gotz  von  Berlichingen.    Goethe... 
Gulliver's  Travels.     Swift 123 

Hamlet.    Shakespeare 202,  225 

Bebrew  Grammar,    i.wald 80 

Hebrew  Utopia,  The.  W.  F.  Adeney. 

195,  196 
Hermann  und  Dorothea.  Goethe....  228 
Hermeneutik     der     ueutestanient- 

lichen  Schriftsteller.    D3pke...l84,  882 
Heroes  and  Hero-worship.    Carlyle.  125 

Hippolytus.     Euripides 168 

Bistory  of  the  English  Literature 

and  Language,    Craik 200 

Bistory  of  French  Literature.  Stains- 
bury 229 

Bistory     of     German     Literature. 

Soberer 205,  207,  228 

Bistory  of  Greece.    Grote 215 

Bistory  of  Greece.    Cartiua 212 

Bistory  of  Greek  Literature.    K.  O. 

MOJler 210,218 

Bistory  of  the  New  Testament  8crip- 

tures.    tteuss 

Bistory  of  Soman  Literature.  Crutt- 

irell 220 

Holy  War,  Tli.'.     Hunyan 128 

Bomer.    Gladstone 179 

Bomer  and  the  Iliad.    Blackle 211 

Eon    to   Know  a  Flatterer  from  a 

Friend     Plutarch '"s 

How  Young  Hen   Ought   to   Bear 

Poems.    Plutarch 178 


INDEX  OF  BOOKS  REFERRED  TO  OR  QUOTED  403 


Boyle's  Games 

llomiletic  Keview,  The. 


PAGE 

...  169 
...  241 


Idyls  of  the  King     Tennyson 

200  222,  230 

Iliad,  The.    Homer 

32,  34,  35,  36.  37,  39,  40,  65,  67, 68,  69,  71 
72,  93,  94,  95,  96,  97,  98,  103,  109,  123,  145 
147,  158,  159,  160,  161,  174,  179,  180,  211 
221. 

Iliad,  The.    Bryant xviii. 

Iliad  of  Homer,  The      Pope 84 

Instability  of  Pleasure,  The.    Maxi- 

mus  Tyrius 99 

International  Dictionary,  The 143 

Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

Davidson 186 

Introduction  to    the    Study   of   the 

Gospels.     Westcott 24 

Ion.     Plato 32,33,93 

Isis  and  Osiris.     Plutarch 177 

Is  there  a  Sect  in  Philosophy  accord- 
ing to  Homer.     Maximus  Tyrius..  161 
Isthmian  Odes,  The.    Pindar 106 

John  Milton.   Edwin  Paxton  Hood...  204 

Kommentar  zum  Briefe  an  die  He- 
braer.    Tholuck 23,27 

Laches.    Plato 176 

Laws.    Plato 34.  38,  66,  104,  105 

Learned  Retained  in  Great  Families, 

The.     Lucian 67 

Lectures  on  the  Quotations.  Leonard 

Woods 276,  292 

Les  Miserables.    Hugo 230 

Lesser  Hippias,  The.    Plato 159 

Les  Travailleurs  de  la  Mer.    Hugo...  230 

Letters  of  Cicero,  The 109 

Letters  of  Julian,  The 63,  106,  162 

Letters  of  Junius,  The 157 

Letters  of  Seneca,  The...  41,  100,  146,  147 
Letters  to  Atticus.  Cicero..  40,  71,  72,  147 

Letters  to  Quintus.     Cicero 71 

Lexicon    of    the   Greek    Language. 

Liddelland  Scott 179 

Life  and  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  The. 

Conybeareand  Howson 86,101,264 


PAGE 

Life   and  Work    of  St.  Paul,  The. 

Farrar xvi.,  264 

Life  of  Milton.    Garnett 204 

Life  of  Plotinus,  The.     Porphyry 89 

Life,  Opinions,  and  Writings  of  John 

Milton.    Keightly 203 

Limitations   of    Religious   Thought, 

The.    Mansel 85 

Literature   and    Dogma.      Matthew 

Arnold x. 

Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  The. 

K.  O.  Muller 213,  217,  230 

Literary  Essays.     Lowell 202 

Looker  On,  The 170 

Lothair.     Disraeli 333 

Love.     Plutarch 178 

Love  of  Wealth,  The.     Plutarch 39 

Lucian.    Jacobitz 96 

Lucian.    Tooke 40 

Lycidas.    Milton 140 

Lysias.     Plato 175 

Macbeth 141,  257 

Maiden  from  Afar,  The.    Schiller 205 

Malade  Imaginaire.    MoliOre 208 

Marble  Faun,  The.   Hawthorne..  227,  333 

Medea.  The.    Ennius 164 

Meeting  for  the  Sake  of  Keceiving 

Instruction.    Philo 43 

Memorabilia  of  Socrates,  The.  Xeno- 

phon 95 

Messianic  Prophecy.    Briggs 197 

Midsummer     Night's     Dream,     A. 

Shakespeare 201 

Ministry  of  Healing,  The.    Gordon..    85 

Modern  Painters.    Ruskin 87,  102,  87 

Mohammed.     Voltaire 209 

Mount  Vernon  Papers.    Everett 142 

Much  Ado  About  Nothing.    Shake- 
speare    202 

Mythology.     Keightly 211 

New  Life,  The.    Dante 123 

New  Testament  Commentary,  The. 

Ellicott 54,  366 

New      Testament       Hermeneutics. 

Dopke 187 

Nicomachian  Ethics.    Aristotle..  38,  103 

Nigrinus.    Lucian 181 

Notre  Dame  de  Paris.  Hugo 230 


404  INDEX  OF  BOOKS  REFERRED  TO  OR  QUOTED 


PAGE 

Observer,  The 170 

Odes.    Horace 155 

Odyssey,  The _ 

33,  35,  36,  37,  38,  40,  68,  71,  72,  96,  97,  98 

99,  104,  144,  145,  158,  160,  161,  162,  174 

177,  180,  183. 

Odyssey,  The.    Bryant xviii. 

OEdipus.    Voltaire 209 

QSdipua  at  Colonus.    Sophocles 217 

OZdipus  the  King.    Sophocles 217 

Old   Testament   in    the  New,  The 

Tholuck 187,189,  196 

Old    Testament   in    the  New,  The. 

Turpie 2,7 

Old  Testament  Prophecy.    Orelli.. ..  193 

Olympic  Odes.     Pindar 9ii 

On  the  Work  of   the  Holy  Spirit. 

Robert  Hall 141 

Oration  against  Piso.    Cicero 104 

Oration  on  the  Departure  of  Sallust. 

Julian 162 

Origin  of  the  World,  The.    Dawson.    87 

Pantagruel.     Rabelais 20S 

Paradise  Lost.    Milton 

140, 155,  184,  203,  204 

Paradise  Regained.     Milton 143 

Paraphrase  of  Gospels,  A,    Erasmus.    84 

Parasite,  The.    Lucian 176 

Parsifal.    Wagner 230 

Peshito  Version,  The 59 

Phsdo.     Plato 105,  126 

Pharsalia.    Lucan 15" 

Pbilootetes.     Sophocles 216 

Philopatrls.    Lucian 10 

Phoenician  Women,  The.  Euripides. 

72,  218 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  The 

119,  123,  125,132,  137,  170 
PlatO.    Jowetl xviii. 

Pit  unreof  Philosophical  Discourse, 

Tli".     Maximns  Tyrius 161 

Plutarch.    Goodwin  xviii. 

Plutarch  on  tin-  Delay  of  the  Dh  ine 

■  in  tioe,    Backetl  ::'.> 

Poetry  of  Tennyson,  ["he.  Van  Dyke  229 

Politics.    Aristotle 160,  162 

Polltici  of  Aristotle,  The      w.  1.. 

Newman 160 


PAGE 

Principle  of  Cold.  The.    Plutarch 175 

Principles  of  New  Testament  Quota- 
tion.   Rev.  James  Scott 109 

Progress  in  Virtue.    Plutarch 97 

Prometheus.    ^Eschylus 225,  226 

Prophets   and   Prophecy   in    Israel. 

Kuenen xvii.,  1,44 

Protagoras.    Plato 104,  143,  173 

Queen  of  the  Air.    Ruskin 209 

Questions  of  the  Day.    Everett 1  To 

Quotations  in  the  New  Testament. 
Toy 8,21,40,49,50,187,  278 

Rasselas.    Johnson 227,  333 

RedenJesu.    Stier 84 

Relation  between  Judaism  and  Chris- 
tianity, The.     Palfrey 278 

Republic  of  Cicero,  The.  G.  G.  Hard- 

ingham 41 

Republic,  The.    Cicero 41 

Republic,  The.    Plato 

35,  36,  37,  94,  105,  107,  126,  158,  159,  174 
181. 

Revelation  of  Elias,  The 152 

Rhetoric.    Aristotle....  3S,  67,  89,  103,  160 

Rhetoric  of  Aristotle.    Cope 38 

Robbers,  The.    Schiller   205 

Rudolf  of  Hapsburg.    Schiller 205 

Saintly  Workers.    Farrar 88 

Samson  AgOnistOB.     Milton 204 

Select  Sentences.    Epicurus 109 

Seneca's  Letters   164 

Sentiments    Proper  to  the  Present 

Crisis,  The.     Robt   Hall 87 

Sermons  on  the  Interpretation   of 

Prophecy.    Arnold 196 

Sesame  and  Lilies.    Ruskin 173 

Seven   Against    Thel.es,  The.      .Vs- 

ohylns 181,  218 

Shepherd's  Calendar,  The.   Bpi  n 

Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible 897 

Sophist,  The.    Plato IM 

Sophoklea  Erklart.    P.  W.  Sohnelde- 

win 816 

Speaker's  1  lommi  utary,  The 

- 
Spectator,  The  t;.  1   -.  168 


INDEX  OF  BOOKS  REFERRED  TO  OR  QUOTED  405 


PAGE 

Studied  und  Kritiken 196 

Studies  in  Shakespeare.  R.G.White.  2U2 
Studies  on  the  Epistles,  Godet..  xv.,  268 
Suppliant  Women,  The.  Euripides..  219 
Symposium,  The.  Plato...  33,  65, 127,  181 

Tale  of  a  Tub.    Swift 123 

Talmud,  The Ill,  134,314 

Tattler,  The 129,  168 

Targum,  The 46.  59,  75 

Telemaque.    Fenelon 208 

Tempest,  The.    Shakespeare 202 

Thecetetus.    Plato 105,  143,  158  | 

Theogony,  The.    Hesiod 

33,  67,  89,  178,  179,  210 

Tide  River,  The.    Kingsley 222 

Tiniseus.    Plato 106 

Timon.     Lueian 96 

Tragedies  of  jEsehylus,  The.  Plump- 

tre 214 

Tristan  and  Isolde.    Wagner 230 

Tusculan  Disputations,  The.  Cicero. 

69,  164 

Ueber  doppelten  Schriftsinn 196 

Use  and   Intent  of  Prophecy,  The. 
Sherlock 192 


PAGE 

Use  of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew,  The. 
Driver 341 

Versuch  einer  pneumatiseh  her- 
meneutischen  Entwicklung  des 
neunten  Kapitels  im  Briefe  an  die 

Romer.     Beck 195 

Votive  Tablets,  The.    Schiller 228 

Vulgate,  The 61 

Wallenstein.    Schiller 205,  229 

Wallenstein's  Camp.    Schiller 229 

Weissaguug  und    Erfiillung.     Hof- 

mann 194 

Who  is  the  Heir  of  Divine  Things? 

Philo 100,  101 

Wilhelm  Meister.    Goethe 333 

Words  of  Christ,  The.    Geikie 84 

Works  and  Days.    Hesiod 37,  39 

World,  The _ 169 

Zanoni.     Bulwer 225.  226 

Zeitschrift  fiir  wissenshaftliche  The- 
ologie 43 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Abbreviated  quotations  in  New  Testa- 
ment, G4. 

Adeney:  on  popular  types  in  Scripture, 
19.5  ;  on  the  double  sense  of  all  proph- 
ecy, 196. 

iEschylus  :  double  reference  in,  211-216. 

Alford:  on  the  "seed"  of  Gal.  3  :  10, 
262  ;  on  types  In  Scripture,  194. 

Allegories:  the  two  great,  of  the  New 
Testament,  117;  in  modern  literature, 
122,  123:  rabbinic,  derived  from  the 
Greek,  134;  of  New  Testament:  are 
they  used  as  proofs  of  doctrine'.'  134- 
137  ;   usually  only  illustrative,  1^7,  138. 

Allegories  of  Plato:  Er,  126  ;  The  Origin 
of  Love,  126,  129;  The  Soul,  126; 
Theuth,  126  ;  The  Creation  of  Man,  126  , 
Zamolxis,  126;  The  Two  Loves,  127. 

Allegory:  referred  to,  x.,  116-138;  Plato's, 
of  "The  Two  Loves,"  compared  to 
Paul's  of  "The  Two  Sons";  also  to 
that  of  "  Melchizedek,"  128;  proper 
names  in,  180-132;  and  type  distin- 
d,  116,  226,226. 

Angels  never  inanimate  objects  or 
forces,  12. 

Animals:  Hod's  c*rc  of,  256;  laws  con- 
e.  ruing,  intended  chiefly  to  benefit 
men, 

Apocrypha:  inexact  quoting  in, 31. 

Apollos, did  he  write  Hebrews?  xii. 

Arams  ami  Paul,  xiv. 

Arguments  from  the  New  Testament 
quotations  i  are  they  ever  Illogical? 
6  871. 

Arnold, on  the  double  sense  of  all  propli- 
">,  196. 

Paeon,  on  doable  reference,  19  S. 

Harm  li  :    Lui  UCI  ■pi'.:   Dg  in,  31. 

;   6 


Beck,  on  harmony  of  type  and  antitype 
in  Scripture,  195,196 

Bible:  the  freedom  of  its  writers,  x.,  xi.; 
the  many  styles  in,  x. 

Bilroth,  on  relation  of  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, 188. 

Bui wer,  on  types  in  all  literature,  225,  226 

Rriggs.on  doublesen.se  in  prophecy,  197. 

Bnmham,  on  ty).es  of  Old  Testament, 
212,243. 

Change  of  reference  of  quotation:  with 
change  of  language,  154-167;  without 
change  of  language,  but  with  change 
of  moaning  of  words,  1G7-185;  without 
change  of  language  or  of  meaning  of 
words,  140-154. 

(  )u  ist's  rebuke  of  rabbinic  interpreta- 
tion, 886. 

Circumcision  in  Old  Testament,  2 

Composite  quotations:  in  Greek  litera- 
ture, 83-'.i!>;  in  Latin  liierature,  99, 
100;  in  modern  literatures,  101,  102;  in 
Philo,  100,  L01. 

Conybeare, on  the  "seed"  of  Gal.  3  :  16, 
264. 

Pante:  overflow  of  language  In, 

Davidson,  denies,  ami  J  et  admits,  double 

reference,  186,  ix7. 

De  Wette,  on  unity  of  Old  and  New  Die- 
ons,  is;*. 

Ddpke:  Tboluck's  criticism  of,  187 ;  on 
rabbinic  Interpretation  of  obi  Tea* 
tament,  dm  ssion    of,  con« 

cerning  dlfli  rence  between  rabbinic 
and  apostolic  Interpretal  ion  of  0  ■! 
Testament,  881 ;  on  rabbinic  folly  of 
Interpn  I 

Double  reference:    x.,  isc  "35;   debato 


GENERAL   INDEX 


407 


concerning,  186-189  ;  denied,  186,  189-  ] 
191 ;  denied,  and  yet  admitted  by  Dav- 
idson, 186, 187;  Stuart  on,  190;  Grotius 
on,  192;  Bacon  on,  192;  Sherlock  on, 
192;  a  better  phrase  than  "double 
sense,"  197;  in  all  literature,  198-222; 
in  English  literature,  198-204;  in  Ger- 
man literature,  205-208;  in  French 
literature,  208, 209 ;  in  Greek  literature, 
209-220;  in  Latin  literature,  220-222; 
how  indicated,  222-231 ;  indicated  by 
overflow  of  language,  222-224;  indi- 
cated by  types,  224-231 ;  in  Scripture, 
231-331  ;  admitted  by  Kuenen,  236;  in 
Longfellow,  199  ;  Tennyson,  200 ;  Spen- 
ser, 200,  201;  Shakespeare,  201-203; 
Milton,  203,  204  ;  Schiller,  205 ;  Goethe, 
206-208;  Rabelais,  208;  Estienne,  208; 
La  Fontaine,  208 ;  Moliere,  208 ;  Fene- 
lon,  208;  Voltaire,  208;  Homer,  211; 
iEschylus,  211-216;  Sophocles,  215-217; 
Euripides,  217-219;  Pindar,  219,  220; 
Virgil,  220-222. 

Double  sense:  inseparable  from  proph- 
ecy, 196 ;  arising  from  unity  of  reli- 
gious experience  under  Old  and  New 
Dispensations,  97. 

Ebrard,  on  rabbinic  folly  of  interpreta- 
tion, 379,  380. 

English  literature:  double  reference  in, 
198-204. 

Ernest  Maltravers :  typical  element  in, 
226. 

Estienne:  double  reference  in,  208. 

Euripides  :  double  reference  in,  217-219. 

"  Faith,"  in  Heb.  2  :  3,  4,  344-347. 

Farrar,  on  the  "seed"  of  Gal.  3  :  16,  264. 

Fathers,  early  :  inexact  quoting  in,  43. 

Faust:  typical  element  in,  226,  228. 

FSnelon :  double  reference  in,  208. 

Fragmentary  quotations:  reasons  for, 
63 ;  in  Greek  literature,  65-69 ;  frequent 
in  Plato  and  Aristotle,  66. 

Fulfillment  of  prophecy  :  Woods  on,  276- 
278;  Tholuck  on,  278-280. 

French  literature:  double  reference  in, 
208,209;  types  in,  229. 

Gentiles:  admission  of,  to  church  fore- 
told, 355,  356. 


German  literature:  double  reference  in, 
205-208. 

Gift  of  tongues,  indicative  of  weak  faith, 
50-54. 

Godet,  on  the  "  seed  "  of  Gal.  3  16,  268. 

Goethe:  double  reference  in,  206-208. 

Greek  classics :  inexact  quoting  in,  31- 
41  ;  double  reference  in,  209-220;  typea 
in,  230,  231. 

Greek  literature :  writer  of  Hebrews  ac- 
quainted with,  xii.;  Paul  acquainted 
with,  xiii.-xv. 

Grotius,  on  double  reference,  192. 

Hamlet:  typical  element  in,  226. 

Hebrew:  a  dead  language  in  apostolic 
age,  18  ;  known  by  writers  of  New  Tes- 
tament, 24-27. 

Hebrews:  reasons  for  conjecture  that 
Apollos  wrote,  xii. ;  writer  of,  ac- 
quainted with  Greek  literature,  xii. 

Hofmaun,  on  types  in  history,  194. 

Homer  :  double  reference  in,  211. 

Hugo:  types  in,  229,  230. 

"  Immanuel "  of  Isa.  7  :  14,  276-2S9. 
Immutability  of  God  a  ground  of  pre- 
diction, 49,  56,  57. 
Infants :  slaughter  of,  293-303. 
Interpretation,  rabbinic,  x.,  372-387. 
Isaiah  a  type  of  Christ,  325-328. 

Kingsley:  overflow  of  language  in,  222, 

223. 
Kuenen,  admits  double  reference,  236. 

La  Fontaine  :  double  reference  in,  208. 
Latin  classics:  inexact  quoting  in,  41,  42. 
Latin    literature:    double  reference  in, 

220-222. 
Laws  of  literature,  xi. 
Lightfoot,  00  the  "  seed"  of  Gal.  3  :  16, 

261,  262. 
Limitation  of  Christ's  knowledge,  187. 
Literature:  chief  laws  of,  xi. 
Longfellow:  double  reference  in,  199. 

Manna,  The,  of  2  Cor.  8,  360,  361. 
Marble  Faun,  a  typical  novel,  227,  228. 
McLane,  on  types  in  nature  and  in  Old 
Testament,  241,  242. 


4o8 


GENERAL  INDEX 


Melchizedek  :  allegory  of,  123,  124. 
Milton  :  double  reference  in,  203,  204. 
Moliere :  double  reference  in,  208  ;  types 
in,  229. 

Nazarenes:  bad  character  of,  111-113. 
Novels  :  typical  element  in,  226-228. 

Old  Testament  a  type  of  New,  18S. 

OKI  Dispensation  a  prediction  of  New, 

189. 
Overflow  of  language,  to  indicate  double 

reference,  222-224;  in  Tennyson,  222; 

in   Kiugsley,  222,  223;  in  Dante,  223, 

224. 
Orelli,  on  types  in  nature,  history,  and 

revelation,  193,  194. 

"  Parables,"  The :  of  Psalm  78  :  2,  306- 
308. 

Paraphrase:  definition  of,  84;  of  quota- 
tions in  general  literature,  85-91. 

Passover,  The :  a  type  of  Christ,  247. 

Paul:  acquainted  with  Greek  literature, 
xiii.-xv.;  and  Aratus,  xiv.;  his  style, 
liiL;  (Jreek  his  mother  tongue,  xw; 
his  years  of  preparation  for  his  mis- 
sion to  Gentiles,  xv.,  xvi. 

Philo  :  inexact  quoting  in,  43. 

Pindar  :  double  reference  in,  219,  220. 

"  Potter,"  The:  of  Zech.  n  :  13,  311-316. 

Prayer  Book:  inexact  quoting  in,  44. 

Prophecies,  Messianic:  of  two  kinds, 
direct  and  typical,  275;  division  of 
Into  direct  and  typical  not  biblical, 
but  modern,  275. 

Prophecy:  always  has  two  senses,  196; 
unconscious,  288,  284, 

"Prophet,"  The:  of  Dcut.  18  :  16-19, 
27 1-276. 

Psalm  110:  authorship  of,  842-344, 

Psalm  109:  not  vengeful,  249-252. 

Quotations  in  New  Testament:  difficul- 
ties "i  summarized,  i\  ;  from  Beptua- 
gint,  lx.,  1-28;  from  memory, ia  ,29-61 ; 
I .  paraphrastic, 
■  ii.  ,ix., 92-102 ;ofsub- 
stance,  lx.,  1" 
185;  alleged  illogical  reasoning  from, 


x.,  270-272,  336-371 ;  translated  from 
Hebrew  by  New  Testament  writers, 
24-27;  usually  not  for  proof,  66;  ab- 
breviated in  New  Testament,  64;  frag- 
nientary,  in  Greek  literature,  65-69; 
fragmentary,  frequent  in  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  66 ;  composite,  in  Greek  liter- 
ature, 83-99;  composite,  in  Latin  liter- 
ature, 99,  100;  composite,  in  Philo, 
100,  101. 

Rabbinic  interpretation,  x.,  372-387;  re- 
buked by  Christ,  386. 

Rabbinic  folly  of  interpretation  :  Ebrard 
on,  379,  380 ;  Reuss  on,  380,  381 ;  D6pke 
on,  381-3S3. 

Rabelais :  double  reference  in,  208. 

Rachel  weeping,  293-30  '•. 

"  Hainan,"  The:  of  Jcr.  31 :  15,  294-299. 

Rasselas,  a  typical  novel,  227. 

Reasoning  from  the  quotations:  is  it  il- 
logical? x.,  336-371. 

"  Rest  "  of  God,  The:  in  lleb.  3  :  4,  362- 
370  ;  Dwight  on.  363,  364  ;  Moulton  on, 
366 ;  Bleek  on,  366,  367  ;  Kurtz  on,  367  5 
Kuenen  on,  362,  363;  Toy  on,  367-370. 

Resurrection,  The:  proved  by  Christ 
from  Exod.8:  6,  837 

Reuss,  on  rabbinic  folly  of  Interprets/- 
180,881. 

Sayce,  on  Melchizedek,  124. 

Schiller:  double  reference  in,  205. 

"Seed,"  The,  of  Gal.  8:  16:  various  in- 
terpretations of,  260-269. 

Beptuagint,  The :  only  Bible  accessible  to 
the  i"  ople,  18. 

Shakespeare:  double  reference  In, 201- 
208. 

"8hepherd,"The:  of  Zech.  18:7,809-811. 

Sherlock,  on  double  reference,  192. 

Slaughter  of  the  infant-,  2 

Sophocles :  donble  reference  In 
Spenser:  double  reference  in,  200, 201. 

Spoils  in  ancient  warfare,  60. 

Stuart,  on  donble  referem 
Substance:  quotations  of,  in  Greek  iii<  r- 
ature,  I 

quoting  In,  n. 


GENERAL   INDEX 


409 


Tennyson:  double  reference  in,  200; 
overflow  of  language  in,  222;  types  in, 
230. 

Tholuck:  on  types  of  Old  Testament, 
240 ;  on  phrase  "  That  it  might  be  ful- 
filled," 278-280. 

Thorwaldseu's  Mercury,  225. 

Toy:  on  limitation  of  Christ's  know- 
ledge, 187 ;  on  circumcision  in  Old 
Testament,  252-255. 

Type  and  antitype:  harmony  of,  a  proof 
of  divine  origin  of  Scriptures,  196. 

Type  different  from  allegory,  116, 225,  226. 

Types  :  in  nature,  193  ;  in  history,  193, 
194;  in  revelation,  193,  194;  popular, 
in  Scriptures,  195 ;  to  indicate  double 
reference,  224-231  ;  often  faint  and 
evanescent,  225,  227 ;  Bulwer  on,  225, 
226;  elude  definition,  225,  226;  in  all 
literatures,  226-231 ;  in  French  litera- 
ture, 229,  230;  in  Moli&re,  229;  in 
Hugo,  229,  230;  in  Wagner,  230;  in 
Tennyson,  230;  in  Greek  literature, 
230,  231;  abound  in  Old  Testament, 
240:  two  kinds  of,  in  nature,  241,  242  ; 
two  kinds  of,  in  Old  Testament,  241, 


242;  of  Old  Testament,  Burnham  on, 
245;  often  minute,  291. 

Typical  element:  in  novels,  226-228;  in 
Faust,  226-228  ;  in  Hamlet,  226 ;  in  Za- 
noni,  226  ;  in  Ernest  Maltravers,  226  ; 
in  The  Votive  Tablets,  228,  229. 

Typical  novel :  Rasselas,  227  ;  The  Mar- 
ble Faun,  227,  228. 

Unconscious  prophecy  :  instance  of,  2S3, 
284  ;  Broadus  on,  284. 

Versions:  proper  manner  of  using,  19,20. 

Virgil :  double  reference  in,  220-222. 

"Virgin,"  The,  of  Isa.  7  :  14:  discussed, 
276-289 ;  Toy  on,  280 ;  common  view  of, 
281-289;  Ewaldon,276;  Cheyne  on,  276. 

Voltaire:  double  reference  in,  208. 

Votive  Tablets,  The :  typical  element  in, 
228,  229. 

Wagner :  types  in,  230. 

Wallenstein's  Camp:  typical  element  in, 

229. 
Woods,  on    phrase  "  That  it  might  be 

fulfilled,"  276-278. 
Zanoni :  typical  element  in,  226. 


BS2387  J66 

The  quotations  of  the  New  Testament  from 

i n h.""'?".!^.?!??.'??.1  Semmary-Speer  Library 


1    1012  00012  8167 


DATE  DUE 


fliffiBr57 


i.i.&  ' 


DEMCO  38-297 


